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What isthe difference between a longitudinal section and a cross section of an object

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What isthe name for the lenses located near the eye

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Explain the type of microscope you should usetoview a virus thatis50 nm in size

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Whatare the differences between a stereomicroscope and a compound light microscope

Which two types of microscopes view objects that have been sliced and treatedto improve contrast

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Laboratory Manual to Accompany Essentials of Biology, Sixth Edition 9 LABORATORY 2 Measuring with Metric Learning Outcomes 2 Length Perform measurements of length. Convert the metric units for length from one type of unit to another. 2 Weight Perform measurements of weight. Convert the metric units for weight from one type of unit to another. 2 Volume Perform measurements of volume. Determine strategies for measuring volume in various circumstances. Convert the metric units for volume from one type of unit to another. 2 Temperature Compare and contrast the Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C) temperature scales. Perform measurements of temperature. Convert one type of temperature into another using a provided equation. Introduction 1. Why a system measurement across is standard of useful the sciences? The metric system is the standard system of measurement 2. Which types of measurements will you perform in this lab? length, Mcss, Volume, Temperature The metric system is the standard system of measurement in the sciences, including biology, chemistry, and physics (Fig. 2). It has tremendous advantages because all conversions, whether for volume, mass (weight), or length, are in units of ten. Figure 2 The metric system is the system of measurement used in scientific laboratories. Harmik Street Images Laboratory 2 Measuring with Metric 9 10 BIO 011 Laboratory Manual This system is similar to our monetary system, in which 10 cents equals a dime, 10 dimes equals a dollar, and SO on. In this laboratory, you will gain experience making measurements of length, volume, mass, and temperature. 2 Length 3. What is the base unit for length? Meters ( m ) 4. Which metric units of measurement are on a typical ruler? inches, centimeter Metric units of length measurement include the meter (m), centimeter (cm), millimeter (mm), micrometer (um), and nanometer (nm) (Table 2). The prefixes milli micro and nano are used with length, weight, and volume. Table 2 Metric Units of Length Measurement Unit Meters Centimeters Millimeters Relative Size Meter (m) 1 m 100 cm mm Largest Centimeter (cm) 0 m 1 cm 10 mm Millimeter (mm) 0 m 0 cm 1 mm Micrometer (um) m cm 0 mm Nanometer (nm) m cm mm Smallest Experimental Procedure: Length 1. Obtain a small ruler marked in centimeters and millimeters. One centimeter equals how many millimeters? 10mm To express the size of small objects, such as cell contents, biologists use even smaller units of the metric system than those on the ruler. These units are the micrometer (um) and the nanometer (nm). According to Table 2, 1 um 0 mm, and 1 nm mm. 2. Measure the diameter of the circle shown to the nearest millimeter. This diameter is 33 mm um nm. 3. Obtain a meter stick. On one side, find the numbers 1 through 39, which denote inches. One meter equals 39 inches therefore, 1 meter is roughly equivalent to 1 yard (yd). Turn the meter stick over, and observe the metric subdivisions. How many centimeters are in a meter? 100cm How many millimeters are in a meter? The prefix milli means thousand 4. Use the meter stick and the method shown in Figure 2 to measure the length of two long bones from a disarticulated human skeleton. Lay the meter stick flat on the lab table. Place a long bone next to the meter stick between two pieces of cardboard (each about 10 cm X 30 cm), held upright 10 Laboratory 2 Measuring with Metric 12 BIO 011 Laboratory Manual 2 Volume 7. What is the base unit for volume? Liter 8. What is another way 1 ml can be expressed? 0 Two metric units of volume are the liter (I) and the milliliter (ml). One liter ml. Experimental Procedure: Volume 1. Graduated cylinders are used to make accurate measures of liquid volume. To compare the accuracy of graduated cylinders to a beaker, fill a beaker to the mark. Now, pour the contents of the beaker into a graduated cylinder. Read the volume of water at the meniscus (Fig. 2), or lowest margin of the liquid level. What is the actual volume of water? 2. useful to know about how many drops of water equal 1 ml. Fill a graduated cylinder to exactly 20 ml. A dropper bottle is necessary to obtain an exact amount. Now, add drops of water from the bottle or pipette until the meniscus reaches exactly 21 ml. About how many drops equal 1 ml of water? 3. The volume of solid objects can be measured using liquid. Your instructor will provide a small object. Hypothesize how you can measure the volume of the object with the water in the graduated cylinder. We can measure the volume subtracting the final volume to the initial volume to get the volume displacement or the object Use your method to find the volume of the object. ml Instead of ml, the volume of solid objects is typically represented as the cube of a length measurement, such as cubic centimeter (cm³). Conveniently, 1 ml 1 cm³. What is the volume of your object in cubic centimeters? Why is it easier to use this method to measure volume of the object compared to using length ments to calculate the volume? Figure 2 Meniscus. The proper way to view the meniscus. 40 improper position meniscus reading 20 ml proper position improper position 12 Laboratory 2 Measuring with Metric Laboratory Manual to Accompany Essentials of Biology, Sixth Edition 13 2 Temperature 1 9. Convert to Celsius. C There are two temperature scales: the Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (centigrade, C) scales (Fig. 2). Scientists use the Celsius scale. Experimental Procedure: Temperature 1. Study the two scales in Figure 2, and complete the following information: 230 110 a. Water freezes at either 32 or O 220 b. Water boils at either 212 or 100 210 Boiling 200 2. To convert from the Fahrenheit to the Celsius scale, use the following 90 190 equation: 180 80 170 or 160 70 ( 32 150 Human body temperature of is what temperature on the Celsius 140 60 scale? 37 130 120 50 3. Record any two of the following temperatures in your lab environment. 110 In each case, allow the end bulb of the Celsius thermometer to remain in 40 100 or on the sample for 1 minute. Room temperature 25 90 30 1 80 Surface of your skin 35 70 20 Cold tap water in a beaker 23 60 Hot tap water in a beaker 32 50 10 40 Ice water 0 30 0 Freezing 5 20 10 0 Figure 2 Temperature scales. The Fahrenheit (F) scale is on the left, and the Celsius scale is on the right. Laboratory 2 Measuring with Metric 13 Laboratory Manual to Accompany Essentials of Biology, Sixth Edition 15 LABORATORY 3 Microscopy Learning Outcomes Introduction Describe similarities and differences between the stereomicroscope (dissecting microscope), the compound light microscope, and the electron microscope. 3 Stereomicroscope (Dissecting Microscope) Identify the parts and explain how to focus the stereomicroscope. 3 Use of the Compound Light Microscope Identify and give the function of the basic parts of the compound light microscope. List, in proper order, the steps for bringing an object into focus with the compound light microscope. Examine microscope characteristics, including inversion, total magnification, diameter of field, and depth of field. 3 Microscopic Observations State two differences between human epithelial cells and onion epidermal cells. Examine a wet mount of pond water and describe the organisms observed. Introduction 1. purpose you using? What is the of this lab and what specific tool will be Purpose of this lab is to learn how to operate a microscope understand its function 2. List several differences between a light and electron microscope. Light microscope uses light to maynify an Image and electron microscope uses a beam of microscope 3. Looking at Figure 3, what specimens or structures might you see today? Smaller Structures Such as, proteins, viruses, eggs, cells, bacter IG Cells are the basic unit of life, but they are extremely small and discovered until the 1600s when the first microscopes were invented. Today, microscopes are an essential tool in biology. This laboratory examines the features, functions, and use of microscopes. Light microscopes and electron microscopes are both used to view structures and details invisible to the human eye (Fig. 3). Light microscopes, which you will be using in the lab today, are the most common. Electron microscopes were invented in the 1930s and the most powerful types are able to view single atoms! Laboratory 3 Microscopy 15 16 BIO 011 Laboratory Manual 0 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 um 10 um 100 um 1 1mm 1 cm 0 m 1 m 10 m 100 m 1 km protein chloroplast plant and mouse rose animal frog egg amino cells acids virus ostrich most bacteria human egg ant egg atom blue whale human electron microscope light microscope human eye Figure 3 The sizes of various objects. It takes a microscope to see most cells and lower levels of biological organization. Cells are visible with the light microscope, but not in much detail. An electron microscope is necessary to see organelles in detail and to observe viruses and molecules. Light Microscopes Light microscopes use light rays passing through lenses to magnify an object. The stereomicroscope ing microscope) is designed to study entire objects in three dimensions at low magnification. The compound light microscope is used for examining small or thinly sliced sections of objects under higher magnification than that of the stereomicroscope (Fig. 3). The term compound refers to the use of two sets of lenses: the ocular lenses located near the eyes and the objective lenses located near the object. Illumination is from below, and visible light passes through clear portions but does not pass through opaque portions. To improve contrast, stains or dyes that bind to cellular structures and absorb light are often used. Electron Microscopes Electron microscopes use beams of electrons to magnify the object. The beams are focused on a photographic plate means of electromagnets. The transmission electron microscope is analogous to the compound light microscope. The object is sliced and treated with heavy metal salts to improve contrast. The ning electron microscope is analogous to the dissecting light microscope. It gives an image of the surface and dimensions of an object, as is apparent from the scanning electron micrograph in Figure 3. The electron microscope has greater resolving power. Resolution is the minimum distance between two objects at which they can still be seen, or resolved, as two separate objects. A compound light microscope can resolve objects about 200 nm apart, but electron microscopes are times more powerful and can resolve objects at less than 0 nm! 16 Laboratory 3 Microscopy 18 BIO 011 Laboratory Manual Figure 3 Binocular dissecting microscope (stereomicroscope). Label this stereomicroscope with the help of the text material. Leica Microsystems GmbH Eyepiece lenses Magnify ny knot Binosular head Leica Illumator Focus knob 3. Focusing knob: a large, black or gray knob located on the used for changing the focus of both eyepieces together. 4. Magnification changing knob: a knob, often built into the binocular head, used to change magnification in both eyepieces simultaneously. This may be a zoom mechanism or a rotating lens mechanism of different powers that clicks into place. 5. Illuminator: used to illuminate an object from may be built into the microscope or separate. 18 Laboratory 3 Microscopy Laboratory Manual to Accompany Essentials of Biology, Sixth Edition 19 Focusing the Stereomicroscope 1. In the center of the stage, place a plastomount that contains small organisms. 2. Adjust the distance between the eyepieces on the binocular head SO that they comfortably fit the distance between your eyes. You should be able to see the object with both eyes as one image. 3. Use the focusing knob to bring the object into focus. 4. Does your microscope have an independent focusing eyepiece? Yes If so, use the focusing knob to bring the image in the fixed eyepiece into focus, while keeping the eye at the independent focusing eyepiece closed. Then adjust the independent focusing eyepiece so that the image is clear, while keeping the other eye closed. Is the image inverted? Yes the (mage is inverted 5. Turn the magnification changing knob, and determine the kind of mechanism on your microscope. A zoom mechanism allows continuous viewing while changing the magnification. A rotating lens mechanism blocks the view of the object as the new lenses are rotated. Be sure to click each lens firmly into place. If you do not, the field will be only partially visible. What kind of mechanism is on your microscope? Zoom mechanism 6. Set the magnification changing knob on the lowest magnification. Sketch the object in the following circle as though this represents your entire field of view: 7. Rotate the magnification changing knob to the highest magnification. Draw another circle within the one provided to indicate the reduction of the field of view. 8. Experiment with various objects at various magnifications until you are comfortable with using the stereomicroscope. 3 Use of the Compound Light Microscope 6. Label Figure 3 with the help of your textbook. 7. Compound light microscopes are parfocal and parcentric. In terms of using the multiple objective lenses, why are these features beneficial? As mentioned, the name compound light microscope indicates that it uses two sets of lenses and light to view an object. The two sets of lenses are the ocular lenses located near the eyes and the objective lenses located near the object. Illumination is from below, and the light passes through clear portions but does not pass through opaque portions. This microscope is used to examine small or thinly sliced sections of objects under higher magnification than would be possible with the stereomicroscope. Laboratory 3 Microscopy 19 Laboratory Manual to Accompany Essentials of Biology, Sixth Edition 21 b. objective: This lens is longer than the scanning objective lens and is used to view objects in greater detail. What is the magnifying power of the objective lens on your microscope? 10 x c. Power objective: If your microscope has three objective lenses, this lens will be the longest. It is used to view an object in even greater detail. What is the magnifying power of the objective lens on your microscope? 40x d. Oil immersion objective (on microscopes with four objective lenses): holds a 95x (to 100x) lens and is used in conjunction with immersion oil to view objects with the greatest magnification. Does your microscope have an oil immersion objective? 100x If this lens is available, your instructor will discuss its use when the lens is needed. 6. Stage: platform that holds and supports microscope slides. A mechanical stage is a movable stage that aids in the accurate positioning of the slide. Does your microscope have a mechanical stage? Yes a. Stage clips: clips that hold a slide in place on the stage. b. Mechanical stage control knobs: two knobs that control movement and movement, respectively. 7. knob: knob used to bring object into approximate used only with objective. 8. knob: knob used to bring object into final focus. 9. Condenser: lens system below the stage used to focus the beam of light on the object being viewed. a. Diaphragm or diaphragm control lever: lever that controls the amount of light passing through the condenser. 10. Light source: an attached lamp that directs a beam of light up through the object. 11. Base: the flat surface of the microscope that rests on the table. Rules for Microscope Use Observe the following rules for using a microscope: 1. The objective (scanning or low) should be in position at both the beginning and the end of microscope use. 2. Use only lens paper for cleaning lenses. 3. Do not tilt the microscope because the eyepieces could fall out, or wet mounts could be ruined. 4. Keep the stage clean and dry to prevent rust and corrosion. 5. Do not remove parts of the microscope. 6. Keep the microscope covering it after use. 7. Report any malfunctions. Focusing the Compound Light Power 1. Turn the nosepiece so that the objective on your microscope is in straight alignment over the stage. 2. Always begin focusing with the objective on your microscope (4x or 10x 3. With the knob, lower the stage (or raise the objectives) until it stops. Laboratory 3 Microscopy 21 use when the lens is needed. 6. Stage: platform that holds and supports microscope slides. A mechanical stage is a movable stage that aids in the accurate positioning of the slide. Does your microscope have a mechanical stage? Yes a. Stage clips: clips that hold a slide in place on the stage. b. Mechanical stage control knobs: two knobs that control movement and movement, respectively. 7. knob: knob used to bring object into approximate used only with objective. 8. knob: knob used to bring object into final focus. 9. Condenser: lens system below the stage used to focus the beam of light on the object being viewed. a. Diaphragm or diaphragm control lever: lever that controls the amount of light passing through the condenser. 10. Light source: an attached lamp that directs a beam of light up through the object. 11. Base: the flat surface of the microscope that rests on the table. Rules for Microscope Use Observe the following rules for using a microscope: 1. The objective (scanning or low) should be in position at both the beginning and the end of microscope use. 2. Use only lens paper for cleaning lenses. 3. Do not tilt the microscope because the eyepieces could fall out, or wet mounts could be ruined. 4. Keep the stage clean and dry to prevent rust and corrosion. 5. Do not remove parts of the microscope. 6. Keep the microscope covering it after use. 7. Report any malfunctions. Focusing the Compound Light Power 1. Turn the nosepiece so that the objective on your microscope is in straight alignment over the stage. 2. Always begin focusing with the objective on your microscope (4x or 10x 3. With the knob, lower the stage (or raise the objectives) until it stops. Laboratory 3 Microscopy 21 22 BIO 011 Laboratory Manual 4. Place a slide of the letter e on the stage, and stabilize it with the clips. (If your microscope has a mechanical stage, pinch the spring of the slide arms on the stage, and insert the slide.) Center the e as best you can on the stage or use the two control knobs located below the stage (if your microscope has a mechanical stage) to center the e. 5. Again, be sure that the objective is in place. Then, as you look from the side, decrease the distance between the stage and the tip of the objective lens until the lens comes to an automatic stop or is no closer than 3 mm above the slide. 6. While looking into the eyepiece, rotate the diaphragm (or diaphragm control lever) to give the maximum amount of light. 7. Using the knob, slowly increase the distance between the stage and the objective lens until the this case, the letter into view, or focus. 8. Once the object is seen, you may need to adjust the amount of light. To increase or decrease the contrast, rotate the diaphragm slightly. 9. Use the knob to sharpen the focus if necessary. 10. Practice having both eyes open when looking through the eyepiece, as this greatly reduces eyestrain. Inversion Inversion refers to the fact that a microscopic image is upside down and reversed. Observation: Inversion a 1. Draw the letter e as it appears on the slide (with the unaided eye, not looking through the eyepiece). 2. Draw the letter e as it appears when, you look through the eyepiece. e 3. What differences do you notice? Itwas inverted 4. Move the slide to the right. Which way does the image appear to move? left 5. Move the slide toward you. Which way does the image appear to move? away from me Focusing the Compound Light Powers Compound light microscopes are that is, once the object is in focus with the lowest power, it should also be almost in focus with the higher power. 1. Bring the object into focus under the lowest power following the instructions in the previous section. 2. Make sure that the letter e is centered in the field of the lowest objective. 3. Move to the next higher objective (low power or high power turning the nosepiece until you hear it click into place. Do not change the parfocal microscope objectives will not normal slides when changing the focus if the lowest objective is initially in focus. (If you are on low power proceed to high power before going on to step 4.) 4. If any adjustment is needed, use only the knob. (Note: Always use only the knob with high power, and do not use the knob.) 5. On a drawing of the letter e to the right, draw a circle around the portion of the letter that you are now seeing with power magnification. The letter e will not disappear because your microscope is bold (the focus remains near the center). 6. When you have finished your observations of this slide (or any slide), rotate the nosepiece until the objective clicks into place, and then remove the slide. 22 Laboratory 3 Microscopy 24 BIO 011 Laboratory Manual Example: If the diameter of field is about 2 mm, then the LPD is um. Using the LPM and HPM values from Table 3, the HPD would be 500 um. LPM HPD LPD X HPM ( ) HPD ( ) X ( ) Depth of Field When viewing an object on a slide under high power, the depth of field (Fig. 3) is the top to comes into focus while slowly focusing up and down with the knob. Observation: Depth of Field 1. Obtain a prepared slide with three or four colored Figure 3 Depth of field. threads mounted together, or prepare a A demonstration of how focusing at depths 1, 2, and 3 slide with three or four crossing threads or hairs of would produce three different images (views) that could be used to reconstruct the original structure different colors. (Directions for preparing a wet of the object. mount are given in Section 3.) 2. With low power, find a point where the threads or hairs cross. Slowly focus up and down. Notice that when one thread or hair is in focus, the plane ers seem blurred. Remember, as the stage moves upward (or the objectives move downward), 1. objects on top come into focus first. Determine the order of the threads or hairs, and complete 1. Table 3. 3. Switch to high power, and notice that the depth of field is more shallow with high power than 2. 2. with low power. Focusing up and down with the knob when viewing a slide with 3. high power will give you an idea of the form. For example, viewing a number of sections from bottom to top 3. allows reconstruction of the object on slide microscope image structure, as demonstrated in Figure 3. at different levels of focus Table 3 Order of Threads (or Hairs) Depth Thread (or Hair) Color Top Middle Bottom 24 Laboratory 3 Microscopy Laboratory Manual to Accompany Essentials of Biology, Sixth Edition 25 3 Microscopic Observations 8. Review the Observation exercises below for Onion Epidermal Cells, Human Epithelial Cells, and Pond Water. Which specific cell structures do you predict will be most visible? When a specimen is prepared for observation, the object should always be viewed as a wet mount. A wet mount is Figure 3 Preparation of a prepared placing a drop of wet mount. liquid on a slide or, if the material is dry, placing it directly on the slide and adding a drop of water or stain. The mount is then covered with a coverslip, as illustrated in Figure 3. Dry the bottom of your slide before placing it on the stage. a. Add drop of liquid or b. Lower coverslip slowly. dry object and liquid. Onion Epidermal Cells Epidermal cells cover the surfaces of plant organs, such as leaves. The bulb of an onion is made up of fleshy leaves. Observation: Onion Epidermal Cells 1. With a scalpel, Figure 3 Onion epidermal cells. strip a small, thin, Scalpel Exercise care Label the cell wall and the nucleus. when using a scalpel parent layer of cells Ted Source from the inside of a fresh onion leaf. 2. Place it gently on a clean, dry slide, and add a 1. drop of iodine solution (or methylene blue). Cover with a coverslip. 3. Observe under the microscope. 4. Locate the cell wall and the nucleus. Label Figure 3. 2. 5. Count the number of onion cells that line up end to end in a single line across the diameter of the 100x (40x) field. Laboratory 3 Microscopy 25 Laboratory Manual to Accompany Essentials of Biology, Sixth Edition 27 Observation: Pond Water 1. Make a wet mount using a drop of pond water and adding a drop of Protoslo (methyl cellulose solution) onto a slide. The Protoslo slows the swimming. 2. Mix thoroughly with a toothpick, and add a coverslip. 3. Scan the slide for living organisms. Use Figure 3 to help identify what you find. Figure 3 Microorganisms found in pond water (not actual size). Amoeba Euglena Paramecium Vorticella Euplotes Asplanchna CITY Tetrahymena Stentor Colpoda Didinium Philodino Keratella Chilomonas Chlamydomonas Difflugia Arcella Eudorina Pandorina Blepharisma Chilodonello Stylonychia Dileptus Chaetonotus Oxytricha Laboratory 3 Microscopy 27 28 BIO 011 Laboratory Manual Laboratory Review 3 Light delectron microscope 1. lengthwise cross section List several types of microscopes. Longetudial Section cuts cuts across 2. What is the difference between a longitudinal section and a cross section of an object? Stereo microscope is dimensional and the other thinly sliced objects 3. What are the differences between a stereomicroscope and a compound light microscope? Refer to the 2 sets of lense 4. What does the term compound mean? Adjustment knob 5. What is used to improve contrast when viewing clear portions of cells? Stereomicroscope 6. What kind of microscope would be used to study a whole or opaque object? Eyepiece 7. What is the name for the lenses located near the eye? Resolution 8. Which term describes the minimum distance between two objects required to distinguish them as two separate objects? 40x 9. If the total magnification of a slide is 400x and the ocular lenses are 10x, what is the magnifying power of the objective being used? Diaphraym 10. If the amount of light passing through the condenser needs to be decreased, what microscope part should be adjusted? Zoom Mechanism 11. What word describes a microscope that remains in focus when the objective lenses are changed? Fine adjustment 12. If a slide is being viewed with the objective, which adjustment knob should be used to sharpen the focus? Scanning power 13. Which objective should be in place when the microscope is put away? Brown 14. If threads are layered from top to bottom, brown, green, red, which layer will come into focus first if you are using the microscope properly? Thought Questions 15. Which type of microscope should be used to view a virus that is 50 nm in size? Justify your choice. The electron microscope is able to view a virus that is 50nm. A light microscope can only view 100mm. 16. Justify your choice of an objective to use when starting your observation of the pond water wet if the organisms are swimming to the left, which way should you move your slide to keep them in view? Since it IS inverted you would need to move the slide to right 17. If you use the knob to focus on an object with the objective, what problems will you encounter? Explain. You would end up cracking the lens if you use the knob to focus on an object with high power objective The fine adjustment knob moves precisly slowly. 28 Laboratory 3 Microscopy

One example of a DCS is the supervisory control and data acquisition (opens in new tab) (SCADA) system used in power plants. SCADA systems are responsible for monitoring and controlling electrical power generation, transmission, and distribution. They enable operators to remotely monitor parameters such as voltage, current, and frequency and control devices such as circuit breakers and switches.

Whatword describes a microscope that remains in focuswhenthe objective lenses are changed

A distribution control system (DCS) is a computerized device that monitors and controls physical processes. A DCS uses a network of sensors to collect data about the state of machines, such as temperature or pressure. It uses this information to determine how much material should be processed through each machine at any given time. This helps manufacturers ensure that the right amount of raw material is used without over-or under-processing their products.

Whattype of microscope would beused tostudy a whole or opaque object

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Distribution control systems (DCSs) offer several advantages over centralized control systems. Here are some key benefits of using a distribution control system:

Distribution control systems (DCSs) are used in various industries, including manufacturing, power generation and distribution, oil and gas production, water treatment facilities, and more.

In a SCADA system, multiple control units are distributed throughout the power plant, each responsible for a specific area or process. These units communicate with a central control room where operators can view real-time data, make decisions, and send commands back to the distributed units. The system's distributed nature allows for efficient control and monitoring of a large-scale power generation facility.