Most cameras include Exif data that provides metadata about the picture. Exif data may include aperture, exposure time, focal length, date and time taken. Some are able to tag the location.

According to Palonen, polarization solves the initial problem of fragmentation, lack of unity, by instituting a frontier that sustains two communities as a bipolar hegemony. It requires constant rearticulation and, therefore, constant antagonism on that frontier… “Similar to the one-party system or consensus, polarization and bipolar hegemony bracket out less important demands and maintain an illusion of unity, rejecting anything that might shake internal cohesion,” she underlines.

Raw files initially had to be processed in specialized image editing programs, but over time many mainstream editing programs, such as Google's Picasa, have added support for raw images. Rendering to standard images from raw sensor data allows more flexibility in making major adjustments without losing image quality or retaking the picture.

The crop factor is relative to the 35mm film format. If a smaller sensor is used, as in most digicams, the field of view is cropped by the sensor to smaller than the 35 mm full-frame format's field of view. This narrowing of the field of view may be described as crop factor, a factor by which a longer focal length lens would be needed to get the same field of view on a 35 mm film camera. Full-frame digital SLRs utilize a sensor of the same size as a frame of 35 mm film.

Jensen, C. & J.P.F. Thomsen (2011). “Can Party Competition Amplify Mass Ideological Polarization over Public Policy? The Case of Ethnic Exclusionism in Denmark and Sweden, Party Politics, 19(5): 821–840.

Manuel Anselmi, Populism, social polarization and hybrid regimes: the case of Venezuela. In: Flaminia Saccà. Globalization and Socio-political New trends. (2016) p. 89-103, ROMA: Eurilink Edizioni Srl, ISBN:978-88-97931-81-2

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2013. Voting in a Time of Polarization: Why Barack Obama Won the 2012 Presidential Election and What It Means. In Larry J. Sabato, ed., Barack Obama and the New America: The 2012 Election and the Changing Face of Politics. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

Firat, Rengin B. and Pascal Boyer. 2015. “Coalitional Affiliation as a Missing Link Between Ethnic Polarization and Well-being: An Empirical Test from the European Social Survey.” Social Science Research, Vol. 53, pg. 148-161.

D.C. Trilling, M. van Klingeren & Y Tsfati (2016). Selective exposure, political polarization, and possible mediators: Evidence from the Netherlands. International Journal of Public Opinion Research.

These are simpler and more compact than DSLRs due to not having a lens reflex system. MILCs, or mirrorless cameras for short, come with various sensor sizes depending on the brand and manufacturer, these include: a small 1/2.3 inch sensor, as is commonly used in bridge cameras such as the original Pentax Q (more recent Pentax Q versions have a slightly larger 1/1.7 inch sensor); a 1-inch sensor; a Micro Four Thirds sensor; an APS-C sensor found in Sony NEX series and α "DSLR-likes", Fujifilm X series, Pentax K-01, and Canon EOS M; and some, such as the Sony α7, use a full frame (35 mm) sensor, with the Hasselblad X1D being the first medium format mirrorless camera. Some MILCs have a separate electronic viewfinder to compensate the lack of an optical one. In other cameras, the back display is used as the primary viewfinder in the same way as in compact cameras. One disadvantage of mirrorless cameras compared to a typical DSLR is its battery life due to the energy consumption of the electronic viewfinder, but this can be mitigated by a setting inside the camera in some models.[52] Many mirrorless cameras have a hotshoe.

Formats for movies are AVI, DV, MPEG, MOV (often containing motion JPEG), WMV, and ASF (basically the same as WMV). Recent formats include MP4, which is based on the QuickTime format and uses newer compression algorithms to allow longer recording times in the same space.

To enable loading many images in miniature view quickly and efficiently, and to retain meta data, some vendors' firmwares generate accompanying low-resolution thumbnail files for videos and raw photos. For example, those of Canon cameras end with .THM.[98] JPEG can already store a thumbnail image standalone.[99]

Political polarization can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes. Almost all discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In most two-party systems, political polarization embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities.

Other formats that are used in cameras (but not for pictures) are the Design Rule for Camera Format (DCF), an ISO specification, used in almost all camera since 1998, which defines an internal file structure and naming. Also used is the Digital Print Order Format (DPOF), which dictates what order images are to be printed in and how many copies. The DCF 1998 defines a logical file system with 8.3 filenames and makes the usage of either FAT12, FAT16, FAT32 or exFAT mandatory for its physical layer in order to maximize platform interoperability.[96]

Firmwares' resolution selector allows the user to optionally lower the resolution, to reduce the file size per picture, and extend lossless digital zooming. The bottom resolution option is typically 640×480 pixels (0.3 megapixels).[36]

Typically, compact digital cameras incorporate a nearly silent leaf shutter into the lens but play a simulated camera sound for skeuomorphic purposes.

The Joint Photography Experts Group standard (JPEG) is the most common file format for storing image data. Other file types include Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) and various Raw image formats.

After a big dip of sales in 2012, consumer digital camera sales declined again in 2013 by 36 percent. In 2011, compact digital cameras sold 10 million per month. In 2013, sales fell to about 4 million per month. DSLR and MILC sales also declined in 2013 by 10–15% after almost ten years of double digit growth.[78] Worldwide unit sales of digital cameras is continuously declining from 148 million in 2011 to 58 million in 2015 and tends to decrease more in the following years.[79]

A digital camera, also called a digicam,[1] is a camera that captures photographs in digital memory. Most cameras produced today are digital,[2] largely replacing those that capture images on photographic film or film stock. Digital cameras are now widely incorporated into mobile devices like smartphones with the same or more capabilities and features of dedicated cameras.[3] High-end, high-definition dedicated cameras are still commonly used by professionals and those who desire to take higher-quality photographs.[4]

Improvements in single-shot cameras and image file processing at the beginning of the 21st century made single-shot cameras almost completely dominant, even in high-end commercial photography.

The color intensity values not captured for each pixel can be interpolated from the values of adjacent pixels which represent the color being calculated.[40]

Most current [timeframe?] consumer digital cameras use a Bayer filter mosaic in combination with an optical anti-aliasing filter to reduce the aliasing due to the reduced sampling of the different primary-color images. A demosaicing algorithm is used to interpolate color information to create a full array of RGB image data.

Polarizationdefinition in Physics

Alan Abramowitz and Jennifer McCoy, “United States: Racial Resentment, Negative Partisanship and Polarization in Trump’s America,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681:1(January 2019): 137-156.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2010. The Disappearing Center: Engaged Citizens, Polarization and American Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.

In an inversion, some phone makers have introduced smartphones with cameras designed to resemble traditional digital cameras. Nokia released the 808 PureView and Lumia 1020 in 2012 and 2013; the two devices respectively run the Symbian and Windows Phone operating systems, and both include a 41-megapixel camera (along with a camera grip attachment for the latter).[73] Similarly, Samsung introduced the Galaxy S4 Zoom, having a 16-megapixel camera and 10x optical zoom, combining traits from the Galaxy S4 Mini with the Galaxy Camera.[74] Panasonic Lumix DMC-CM1 is an Android KitKat 4.4 smartphone with 20MP, 1" sensor, the largest sensor for a smartphone ever, with Leica fixed lens equivalent of 28 mm at F2.8, can take RAW image and 4K video, has 21 mm thickness.[75] Furthermore, in 2018 Huawei P20 Pro is an android Oreo 8.1 has triple Leica lenses in the back of the smartphone with 40MP 1/1.7" RGB sensor as first lens, 20MP 1/2.7" monochrome sensor as second lens and 8MP 1/4" RGB sensor with 3x optical zoom as third lens.[76] Combination of first lens and second lens will produce bokeh image with larger high dynamic range, whereas combination of mega pixel first lens and optical zoom will produce maximum 5x digital zoom without loss of quality by reducing the image size to 8MP.[77]

In late 2008, a new type of camera emerged, called a mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera. It is technically a DSLR camera that does not require a reflex mirror, a key component of the former. While a typical DSLR has a mirror that reflects light from the lens up to the optical viewfinder, in a mirrorless camera, there is no optical viewfinder. The image sensor is exposed to light at all times, giving the user a digital preview of the image either on the built-in rear LCD screen or an electronic viewfinder (EVF).[51]

Line-scan cameras are also extensively used in imaging from satellites (see push broom scanner). In this case the row of sensors is perpendicular to the direction of satellite motion. Line-scan cameras are widely used in scanners. In this case, the camera moves horizontally.

Digital and digital movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device.[5] The diaphragm and shutter admit a controlled amount of light to the image, just as with film, but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other kinds of image editing.[6][7]

“The Logic of Polarizing Populism: State Crises and Polarization in South America,” Samuel Handlin, American Behavioral Scientist, 2018. Special issue on Polarization and Democracy.

A variety of additional features are available depending on the model of the camera. Such features include GPS, compass, barometers and altimeters.[44]

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2014. Long-Term Trends and Short-Term Forecasts: The Transformation of U.S. Presidential Elections in an Age of Polarization. PS: Political Science and Politics: 47, April: 289-292.

A rangefinder is a device to measure subject distance, with the intent to adjust the focus of a camera's objective lens accordingly (open-loop controller). The rangefinder and lens focusing mechanism may or may not be coupled. In common parlance, the term "rangefinder camera" is interpreted very narrowly to denote manual-focus cameras with a visually-read out optical rangefinder based on parallax. Most digital cameras achieve focus through analysis of the image captured by the objective lens and distance estimation, if it is provided at all, is only a byproduct of the focusing process (closed-loop controller).[65]

Digital cameras utilize either proprietary or standard consumer batteries. As of March 2014[update], most cameras use proprietary lithium-ion batteries while some use standard AA batteries or primarily use a proprietary Lithium-ion rechargeable battery pack but have an optional AA battery holder available.

In order to guarantee interoperability, DCF specifies the file system for image and sound files to be used on formatted DCF media (like removable or non-removable memory) as FAT12, FAT16, FAT32, or exFAT.[97] Media with a capacity of more than 2 GB must be formatted using FAT32 or exFAT.

Cameras with fixed semi-transparent mirrors, also known as DSLT cameras, such as the Sony SLT cameras, are single-lens without a moving reflex mirror as in a conventional DSLR. A semi-transparent mirror transmits some of the light to the image sensor and reflects some of the light along the path to a pentaprism/pentamirror which then goes to an optical view finder (OVF) as is done with a reflex mirror in DSLR cameras. The total amount of light is not changed, just some of the light travels one path and some of it travels the other. The consequences are that DSLT cameras should shoot a half stop differently from DSLR. One advantage of using a DSLT camera is the blind moments a DSLR user experiences while the reflecting mirror is moved to send the light to the sensor instead of the viewfinder do not exist for DSLT cameras. Because there is no time at which light is not traveling along both paths, DSLT cameras get the benefit of continuous auto-focus tracking. This is especially beneficial for burst-mode shooting in low-light conditions and also for tracking when taking video.[citation needed]

The third method is called scanning because the sensor moves across the focal plane much like the sensor of an image scanner. The linear or tri-linear sensors in scanning cameras utilize only a single line of photosensors, or three lines for the three colors. Scanning may be accomplished by moving the sensor (for example, when using color co-site sampling) or by rotating the whole camera. A digital rotating line camera offers images consisting of a total resolution that is very high.

Webster, Steven W., and Alan I. Abramowitz. 2017. The Ideological Foundations of Affective Polarization in the U.S. Electorate. American Politics Research 45: 621- 647.

Polarization and partisanship: Key drivers of distrust in media old and new? — J Suiter, R Fletcher; European Journal of Communication, 0267323120903685

The two major types of digital image sensors are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier.[33] Compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS (BSI-CMOS) sensor. The image processing capabilities of the camera determine the outcome of the final image quality much more than the sensor type.[34][35]

There are many manufacturers that lead in the production of digital cameras (commonly DSLRs). Each brand embodies different mission statements that differ them from each other outside of the physical technology that they produce. While the majority of manufacturers share modern features amongst their production of cameras, some specialize in specific details either physically on camera or within the system and image quality.

The Cromemco Cyclops was an all-digital camera introduced as a commercial product in 1975. Its design was published as a hobbyist construction project in the February 1975 issue of Popular Electronics magazine. It used a 32×32 metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) image sensor, which was a modified MOS dynamic RAM (DRAM) memory chip.[16]

According to an article by Samuel Handlin, extremely polarized politics in countries such as Bolivia, Ecuador and Venezuela emerged through a mechanism termed polarizing populism, in which political outsiders leveraged popular anti-systemic appeals to underwrite otherwise risky and highly controversial policy programs. The occurrence (or not) of polarizing populism in South America, in turn, can be explained by the conjunction of state crises before the left turn period and the strength of the extant infrastructure of left-wing political mobilization each country possessed as the post–Cold War era began, which shaped incentives for outsiders to build ideologically narrow or broad elite coalitions.

At Photokina 1988, Fujifilm introduced the FUJIX DS-1P, the first fully digital camera, which recorded digital images using a semiconductor memory card. The camera's memory card had a capacity of 2 MB of SRAM (static random-access memory), and could hold up to ten photographs. In 1989, Fujifilm released the FUJIX DS-X, the first fully digital camera to be commercially released.[20] In 1996, Toshiba's 40 MB flash memory card was adopted for several digital cameras.[26]

Wojcieszak, M. (2015). Political Polarization. In G. Mazzoleni (Ed.) International Encyclopedia of Political Communication. ICA Wiley-Blackwell International Encyclopedia. London: Wiley-Blackwell.

As of March 2014[update], mirrorless cameras are fast becoming appealing to both amateurs and professionals alike due to their simplicity, compatibility with some DSLR lenses, and features that match most DSLRs today.[54]

While most digital cameras with interchangeable lenses feature a lens-mount of some kind, there are also a number of modular cameras, where the shutter and sensor are incorporated into the lens module.

This type of digital camera captures information about the light field emanating from a scene; that is, the intensity of light in a scene, and also the direction that the light rays are traveling in space. This contrasts with a conventional digital camera, which records only light intensity.

The first filmless SLR (single lens reflex) camera was publicly demonstrated by Sony in August 1981. The Sony "Mavica" (magnetic still video camera) used a color-striped 2/3" format CCD sensor with 280K pixels, along with analogue video signal processing and recording.[22] The Mavica electronic still camera recorded FM modulated analog video signals on a newly developed 2" magnetic floppy disk, dubbed the "Mavipak". The disk format was later standardized as the "Still Video Floppy", or "SVF".

Political elites and immigration in Italy: party competition, polarization and new cleavages — D Di Mauro, L Verzichelli, Contemporary Italian Politics, 2019, 1-14.

In response to the convenience and flexibility of smartphone cameras, some manufacturers produced "smart" digital cameras that combine features of traditional cameras with those of a smartphone. In 2012, Nikon and Samsung released the Coolpix S800c and Galaxy Camera, the first two digital cameras to run the Android operating system. Since this software platform is used in many smartphones, they can integrate with some of the same services (such as e-mail attachments, social networks and photo sharing sites) that smartphones do and use other Android-compatible software.[71]

Barberá, P. “Social Media, Echo Chambers, and Political Polarization”, forthcoming. Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, edited by Nate Persily and Joshua Tucker. Cambridge University Press.

The most common class of battery used in digital cameras is proprietary battery formats. These are built to a manufacturer's custom specifications. Almost all proprietary batteries are lithium-ion. In addition to being available from the OEM, aftermarket replacement batteries are commonly available for most camera models.

In bright sun, the quality difference between a good compact camera and a digital SLR is minimal but bridge cameras are more portable, cost less and have a greater zoom ability. Thus a bridge camera may better suit outdoor daytime activities, except when seeking professional-quality photos.[50]

Many early professional SLR cameras, such as the Kodak DCS series, were developed from 35 mm film cameras. The technology of the time, however, meant that rather than being digital "backs" the bodies of these cameras were mounted on large, bulky digital units, often bigger than the camera portion itself. These were factory built cameras, however, not aftermarket conversions.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. How Race and Religion Have Polarized American Voters. In Daniel J. Hopkins and John Sides, eds., Political Polarization in American Politics. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.

A few cameras used other removable storage such as Microdrives (very small hard disk drives), CD single (185 MB),[88] and 3.5" floppy disks (e. g. Sony Mavica). Other unusual formats include:

Jennifer McCoy and Murat Somer, “Toward a Theory of Pernicious Polarization and How it Harms Democracy: Comparative Evidence and Possible Remedies,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681, no. 1 (January 2019): 234-271.

“Alternatively, one of the main parties is seen as a populist. In Hungary there are two,” reminds Palonen and adds that “Populism is a hegemonic formation. They profess black-and-white rhetoric on the people and the elite, the tendential empty stances on values and policies and a stark confrontation with the political adversary. Post-Communist politics in Hungary are politics of a bipolar hegemony and competing populism. A ‘hegemonic formation’ fixes a maximum amount of meanings together or blocks them out of it. In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry meanings for the two poles. The two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus.”

Political polarization, according to an article by Emilia Palonen, is a political tool — articulated to demarcate frontiers between ‘us’ and ‘them’ and to stake out communities perceived as moral orders. Palonen writes that “polarization is a situation in which two groups create each other through demarcation of the frontier between them. The dominant political frontier creates a point of identification and confrontation in the political system, where consensus is found only within the political camps themselves.”

Vendors implement a variety scene modes in cameras' firmwares for various purposes, such as a "landscape mode" which prevents focusing on rainy and/or stained window glass such as a windshield, and a "sports mode" which reduces motion blur of moving subjects by reducing exposure time with the help of increased light sensitivity. Firmwares may be equipped with the ability to select a suitable scene mode automatically through artificial intelligence.[84][85]

Single-shot capture systems use either one sensor chip with a Bayer filter mosaic, or three separate image sensors (one each for the primary additive colors red, green, and blue) which are exposed to the same image via a beam splitter (see Three-CCD camera).

Most modern digital camera backs use CCD or CMOS matrix sensors. The matrix sensor captures the entire image frame at once, instead of incrementing scanning the frame area through the prolonged exposure. For example, Phase One produces a 39 million pixel digital camera back with a 49.1 x 36.8 mm CCD in 2008. This CCD array is a little smaller than a frame of 120 film and much larger than a 35 mm frame (36 x 24 mm). In comparison, consumer digital cameras use arrays ranging from 36 x 24 mm (full frame on high end consumer DSLRs) to 1.28 x 0.96 mm (on camera phones) CMOS sensor.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2007. Don’t Blame Primary Voters for Polarization. The Forum: A Journal of Applied Research in Contemporary Politics, Issue 4, Article 4.

The big physical size and small sensor allow superzoom and wide aperture. Bridge cameras generally include an image stabilization system to enable longer handheld exposures, sometimes better than DSLR for low light conditions.

Multi-shot exposes the sensor to the image in a sequence of three or more openings of the lens aperture. There are several methods of application of the multi-shot technique. The most common was originally to use a single image sensor with three filters passed in front of the sensor in sequence to obtain the additive color information. Another multiple-shot method is called microscanning. This method uses a single sensor chip with a Bayer filter and physically moves the sensor on the focus plane of the lens to construct a higher resolution image than the native resolution of the chip. A third version combines these two methods without a Bayer filter on the chip.

Polarizationdefinition in communication

Over the next few years, many other companies began selling SVF cameras. These analog electronic cameras included the Nikon QV-1000C, which had an SLR viewfinder and a 2/3" format monochrome CCD sensor with 380K pixels, and recorded analog black and white images on a Still Video Floppy.[24][25]

There are also a number of add-on camera modules for smartphones, they are called lens-style cameras (lens camera or smart lens). They contain all the essential components of a digital camera inside a DSLR lens-shaped module, hence the name, but lack any sort of viewfinder and most controls of a regular camera. Instead, they are connected wirelessly and/or mounted to a smartphone to be used as its display output and operate the camera's various controls.

Most manufacturers of digital cameras do not provide drivers and software to allow their cameras to work with Linux or other free software.[clarification needed] Still, many cameras use the standard USB mass storage and/or Media Transfer Protocol, and are thus widely supported. Other cameras are supported by the gPhoto project, and many computers are equipped with a memory card reader.

Most earlier digital camera backs used linear array sensors, moving vertically to digitize the image. Many of them only capture grayscale images. The relatively long exposure times, in the range of seconds or even minutes generally limit scan backs to studio applications, where all aspects of the photographic scene are under the photographer's control.

The resolution of a digital camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into discrete signals. The brighter the image at a given point on the sensor, the larger the value that is read for that pixel. Depending on the physical structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used, which requires demosaicing to recreate a full-color image. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the camera's "pixel count". In a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. Pixels are square and is often equal to 1, for example, a 1,000 by 1,000-pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, or 1 megapixel. On full-frame sensors (i.e., 24 mm 36 mm), some cameras propose images with 20–25 million pixels that were captured by 7.5–m photosites, or a surface that is 50 times larger.  [42]

Meanwhile, a central claim of Hadlin’s article is that polarizing populism is enabled by state crises. State crises refer to situations characterized by two necessary elements: i) States perform poorly: Basic institutions such as the public administration, the judiciary, and the police prove inefficient and highly corrupt in their conduct and provision of goods and services. ii) Citizens come to possess very little confidence in these basic state institutions and government in general.  However, polarizing populism required not just state crisis but also contextual conditions that induced outsiders to build elite coalitions on the left. The proesses by which populist outsiders build movements, especially the coalitions and alliances they forge, therefore become critical in determining whether populists will adopt pragmatic or polarizing positions, and therefore whether or not they will transform party systems in highly polarizing directions.

Federico Vegetti, Zoltán Fazekas and Zsombor Méder. “Sorting your way out: perceived party posi- tions, political knowledge, and polarization.” 2017 Acta Politica, 52(4), 479–501.

Palonen says that in polarization there is no middle ground. One has to choose sides. The political opponent is turned into an enemy, with an illegitimate and threatening position. Polarization also requires consensus on both sides of the main frontier, there is little space for diversity. Political polarization produces strong leaders due to the lack of contestation from within the party or coalition. They in turn secure their position by strengthening the polarization. This has been the main rhetorical strategy of Viktor Orban, a key populist politician in post-Communist Hungary, the leader of the Fidesz party.

Firmware in the camera, or a software in a raw converter program such as Adobe Camera Raw, interprets the raw data from the sensor to obtain a full-color image, because the RGB color model requires three intensity values for each pixel: one each for the red, green, and blue (other color models, when used, also require three or more values per pixel). A single sensor element cannot simultaneously record these three intensities, so a color filter array (CFA) must be used to selectively filter a particular color for each pixel.

Since the first digital backs were introduced, there have been three main methods of capturing the image, each based on the hardware configuration of the sensor and color filters.

Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Winter, Stephan & Yu, Xudong. (2020). Social Norms and Selectivity: Effects of Norms of Open-Mindedness on Content Selection and Affective Polarization. Mass Communication and Society. 10.1080/15205436.2020.1714663.

Starting in 2010, some compact digital cameras can take 3D still photos.[45] These 3D compact stereo cameras can capture 3D panoramic photos with dual lens or even a single lens for playback on a 3D TV.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. Partisan Nation: The Rise of Affective Polarization in the American Electorate. In John Green, Daniel Coffey and David Cohen, eds., The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties, 7th edition. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

At CES 2013, Sakar International announced the Polaroid iM1836, an 18MP camera with 1"-sensor with interchangeable sensor-lens. An adapter for Micro Four Thirds, Nikon and K-mount lenses was planned to ship with the camera.[55]

Sales of traditional digital cameras have declined due to the increasing use of smartphones for casual photography, which also enable easier manipulation and sharing of photos through the use of apps and web-based services. "Bridge cameras", in contrast, have held their ground with functionality that most smartphone cameras lack, such as optical zoom and other advanced features.[71][72] DSLRs have also lost ground to Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC)s offering the same sensor size in a smaller camera. A few expensive ones use a full-frame sensor, just like DSLR professional cameras.

Abramowitz, Alan I., and Kyle L. Saunders. 1997. Party Polarization and Ideological Realignment in the U.S. Electorate, 1976-1994. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond, 3rd edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

Also in 1972, Thomas McCord from MIT and James Westphal from Caltech together developed a digital camera for use with telescopes. Their 1972 "photometer-digitizer system" used an analog-to-digital converter and a digital frame memory to store 256 x 256-pixel images of planets and stars, which were then recorded on digital magnetic tape.  CCD sensors were not yet commercially available, and the camera used a silicon diode vidicon tube detector which was cooled using dry ice to reduce dark current, allowing exposure times of up to one hour.

Many industrial applications require a wide field of view. Traditionally maintaining consistent light over large 2D areas is quite difficult. With a line scan camera all that is necessary is to provide even illumination across the "line" currently being viewed by the camera. This makes sharp pictures of objects that pass the camera at high speed.

Film camera sales hit their peak at about 37 million units in 1997, while digital camera sales began in 1989. By 2008, the film camera market had died and digital camera sales hit their peak at 121 million units in 2010. In 2002, cell phones with an integrated camera had been introduced and in 2003 the cell phone with an integrated camera had sold 80 million units per year. By 2011, cell phones with an integrated camera were selling hundreds of millions per year, which were causing a decline in digital cameras. In 2015, digital camera sales were 35 million units or only less than a third of digital camera sales numbers at their peak and also slightly less than film camera sold number at their peak.[citation needed]

Rugged compact cameras typically include protection against submersion, hot and cold conditions, shock, and pressure. Terms used to describe such properties include waterproof, freeze-proof, heatproof, shockproof, and crushproof, respectively. Nearly all major camera manufacturers have at least one product in this category. Some are waterproof to a considerable depth up to 100 feet (30 m);[47] others only 10 feet (3 m), but only a few will float. Ruggeds often lack some of the features of ordinary compact camera, but they have video capability and the majority can record sound. Most have image stabilization and built-in flash. Touchscreen LCD and GPS do not work underwater.

Some waterproof cameras can be fitted with a waterproof housing to increase the operational depth range. The Olympus 'Tough' range of compact cameras is an example.

Cameras can be equipped with a varying amount of environmental sealing to provide protection against splashing water, moisture (humidity and fog), dust and sand, or complete waterproofness to a certain depth and for a certain duration. The latter is one of the approaches to allow underwater photography, the other approach being the use of waterproof housings. Many waterproof digital cameras are also shockproof and resistant to low temperatures.

Handlin says highly polarizing party systems in South America emerged through a mechanism of ‘polarizing populism,’ distinguished by two characteristics: i) Populist figures and movements emerged to challenge for, and often win, executive power. ii) These populist figures not only politicized a pro-systemic/anti-systemic dimension of politics, but they also advanced radical programmatic agendas greatly at odds with those of status quo opponents.

Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Garrett, R. Kelly. (2018). Social Identity, Selective Exposure, and Affective Polarization: How Priming National Identity Shapes Attitudes Toward Immigrants Via News Selection. Human Communication Research. 44. 10.1093/hcr/hqx010.

Multiple rows of sensors may be used to make colored images, or to increase sensitivity by TDI (time delay and integration).

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. American Political Parties in an Age of Polarization. In Mark D. Brewer and L. Sandy Maisel, eds., The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns, 5th edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Common values for field of view crop in DSLRs using active pixel sensors include 1.3x for some Canon (APS-H) sensors, 1.5x for Sony APS-C sensors used by Nikon, Pentax and Konica Minolta and for Fujifilm sensors, 1.6 (APS-C) for most Canon sensors, ~1.7x for Sigma's Foveon sensors and 2x for Kodak and Panasonic 4/3-inch sensors currently used by Olympus and Panasonic. Crop factors for non-SLR consumer compact and bridge cameras are larger, frequently 4x or more.

Polarizationdefinition psychology

Stone, Walter J., Ronald B. Rapoport and Alan I. Abramowitz. 1990. The Reagan Revolution and Party Polarization in the 1980s. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond: Changes in the American Party System. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

Somer, Murat, and Jennifer McCoy. “Transformations through Polarizations and Global Threats to Democracy.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 681, no. 1 (January, 2019): 8–22.

Mobile phones incorporating digital cameras were introduced in Japan in 2001 by J-Phone. In 2003 camera phones outsold stand-alone digital cameras, and in 2006 they outsold film and digital stand-alone cameras. Five billion camera phones were sold in five years, and by 2007 more than half of the installed base of all mobile phones were camera phones. Sales of separate cameras peaked in 2008.[70]

Many cameras, especially high-end ones, support a raw image format. A raw image is the unprocessed set of pixel data directly from the camera's sensor, often saved in a proprietary format. Adobe Systems has released the DNG format, a royalty-free raw image format used by at least 10 camera manufacturers.

Instead of measuring the intensity of light over some predetermined time interval (the exposure time), event cameras detect when the intensity of light changes by some threshold for each pixel independently, usually with microsecond precision.

The first such modular camera was the Minolta Dimâge V in 1996, followed by the Minolta Dimâge EX 1500 in 1998 and the Minolta MetaFlash 3D 1500 in 1999. In 2009, Ricoh released the Ricoh GXR modular camera.

Yang, J., Rojas, H., Wojcieszak, M., et al. (2016). Why are “others” so polarized? Perceived political polarization and media use in 10 countries. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 21(5), 349- 367.

Cameras that use a beam-splitter single-shot 3CCD approach, three-filter multi-shot approach, color co-site sampling or Foveon X3 sensor do not use anti-aliasing filters, nor demosaicing.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2017. It Wasn’t the Economy, Stupid: Racial Polarization, White Racial Resentment, and the Rise of Trump. In Larry Sabato, Kyle Kondik and Geoff Skelley, eds., Trumped: The 2016 Election that Broke All the Rules. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

Bridge cameras physically resemble DSLRs, and are sometimes called DSLR-shape or DSLR-like. They provide some similar features but, like compacts, they use a fixed lens and a small sensor. Some compact cameras have also PSAM mode.[clarification needed] Most use live preview to frame the image. Their usual autofocus is by the same contrast-detect mechanism as compacts, but many bridge cameras have a manual focus mode and some have a separate focus ring for greater control.

Where populist citizens get the news: An investigation of news audience polarization along populist attitudes in 11 countries — A Schulz; Communication Monographs, 2019, 86 (1), 88-111.

J. Tucker, A. Guess, P. Barbera, C. Vaccari, A. Siegel, S. Sanovich, D. Stukal, B. Nyhan (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature, commissioned by the Hewlett Foundation.

Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR) is a camera with a digital sensor that utilizes a reflex mirror to split or direct light into the viewfinder to produce an image.[63] The reflex mirror finds the image by blocking light to the camera's sensor and then reflecting it into the camera's pentaprism which allows it to be seen through the viewfinder.[63] When the shutter release is fully pressed the reflex mirror pulls out horizontally below the pentaprism briefly darkening the viewfinder and then opening up the sensor for exposure which creates the photo.[63] The digital image is produced by the sensor which is an array of photoreceptors on a microchip capable of recording light values. Many modern DSLRs offer the ability for "live view" or the framing of the subject emitted from the sensor onto a digital screen, and many have a hotshoe.

On the other hand, a World Bank report shows that many countries in Europe and Central Asia (ECA) are witnessing significant political polarization. Increasing numbers of voters appear to be moving away from centrist positions, abandoning long-held political commitments, and losing faith in established parties and to some extent institutions… Many issues — including economic difficulties, ethnic rivalries, the refugee crisis, and geopolitical tensions — may be driving political polarization in ECA. The importance of each varies by country. There does appear to have been some shift across ECA away from traditional, more centrist political parties, as well as toward more populist political opinions, since the beginning of this century.

A notable exception is the Nikon E2 and Nikon E3, using additional optics to convert the 35 mm format to a 2/3 CCD-sensor.

DCF 2.0 adds support for DCF optional files recorded in an optional color space (that is, Adobe RGB rather than sRGB). Such files must be indicated by a leading "_" (as in "_DSC" instead of "100_" or "DSC0").[97]

A line-scan camera traditionally has a single row of pixel sensors, instead of a matrix of them. The lines are continuously fed to a computer that joins them to each other and makes an image.[66][67] This is most commonly done by connecting the camera output to a frame grabber which resides in a PCI slot of an industrial computer. The frame grabber acts to buffer the image and sometimes provide some processing before delivering to the computer software for processing. Industrial processes often require height and width measurements performed by digital line-scan systems.[68]

The Bayer filter pattern is a repeating 2x2 mosaic pattern of light filters, with green ones at opposite corners and red and blue in the other two positions. The high proportion of green takes advantage of the properties of the human visual system, which determines brightness mostly from green and is far more sensitive to brightness than to hue or saturation. Sometimes a 4-color filter pattern is used, often involving two different hues of green. This provides potentially more accurate color, but requires a slightly more complicated interpolation process.[39]

The 360-degree camera can take picture or video 360 degrees using two lenses back-to-back and shooting at the same time. Some of the cameras are Ricoh Theta S, Nikon Keymission 360 and Samsung Gear 360. Nico360 was launched in 2016 and claimed as the world's smallest 360-degree camera with size 46 x 46 x 28 mm (1.8 x 1.8 x 1.1 in) and price less than $200. With virtual reality mode built-in stitching, Wifi, and Bluetooth, live streaming can be done. Due to it also being water resistant, the Nico360 can be used as action camera.[48]

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. The New American Electorate: Partisan, Sorted and Polarized. In James Thurber, ed., American Gridlock: The Sources, Character and Impact of Political Polarization. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Suiter, Jane & Fletcher, Richard. (2020). Polarization and partisanship: Key drivers of distrust in media old and new?. European Journal of Communication. 026732312090368. 10.1177/0267323120903685.

Castanho Silva, Bruno. (2017). Populist radical right parties and mass polarization in the Netherlands. European Political Science Review. 10. 1-26. 10.1017/S1755773917000066.

The choice of method for a given capture is determined largely by the subject matter. It is usually inappropriate to attempt to capture a subject that moves with anything but a single-shot system. However, the higher color fidelity and larger file sizes and resolutions that are available with multi-shot and scanning backs make them more attractive for commercial photographers who are working with stationary subjects and large-format photographs.[original research?]

HDMI has been adopted by many high-end digital camera makers, to show photos in their high-resolution quality on an HDTV.

A common alternative is the use of a card reader which may be capable of reading several types of storage media, as well as high speed transfer of data to the computer. Use of a card reader also avoids draining the camera battery during the download process. An external card reader allows convenient direct access to the images on a collection of storage media. But if only one storage card is in use, moving it back and forth between the camera and the reader can be inconvenient. Many computers have a card reader built in, at least for SD cards.

Tucker, J., Guess, A., Barberá, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich, S., Stukal, D. & Nyhan, B. “Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature”, Report prepared for the Hewle Foundation, 2018.

Yang, JungHwan & Rojas, Hernando & Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Aalberg, Toril & Coen, Sharon & James, Curran & Hayashi, Kaori & Iyengar, Shanto & Jones, Paul & Mazzoleni, Gianpietro & Papathanassopoulos, Stylianos & Rhee, June & Rowe, David & Soroka, Stuart & Tiffen, Rodney. (2016). Why Are “Others” So Polarized? Perceived Political Polarization and Media Use in 10 Countries. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 10.1111/jcc4.12166.

Many digital cameras include a video output port. Usually sVideo, it sends a standard-definition video signal to a television, allowing the user to show one picture at a time. Buttons or menus on the camera allow the user to select the photo, advance from one to another, or automatically send a "slide show" to the TV.

Dynamics of Polarization in the Greek Case — Andreadis, Ioannis; Stavrakakis, Yannis; Mccoy, Jennifer (Editor); Somer, Murat (Editor); The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January 2019, Vol.681(1), pp.157-172.

Cameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35 mm film size have a smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length. This is because the angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.

Compacts often have macro capability and zoom lenses, but the zoom range (up to 30x) is generally enough for candid photography but less than is available on bridge cameras (more than 60x), or the interchangeable lenses of DSLR cameras available at a much higher cost.[43] Autofocus systems in compact digital cameras generally are based on a contrast-detection methodology using the image data from the live preview feed of the main imager. Some compact digital cameras use a hybrid autofocus system similar to what is commonly available on DSLRs.

Abramowitz, Alan I. and Walter J. Stone. 2006. The Bush Effect: Polarization, Turnout, and Activism in the 2004 Presidential Election. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36: 141-154.

The first semiconductor image sensor was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969,[8] based on MOS capacitor technology.[9] The NMOS active-pixel sensor was later invented by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985,[10][11][12] which led to the development of the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1993.[13][11]

Polarizationdefinition biology

Many digital cameras have preset modes for different applications. Within the constraints of correct exposure various parameters can be changed, including exposure, aperture, focusing, light metering, white balance, and equivalent sensitivity. For example, a portrait might use a wider aperture to render the background out of focus, and would seek out and focus on a human face rather than other image content.

Polarization is reproduced in all political and social contexts with an intensity that distinguishes it from mere two-party politics, according to Palonen who says “It is a totalizing system, as it aims to dominate the existing systems of differences and identities. Similar logic can be found in other polarized contexts, such as those in the USA or Italy. The situation constitutes a problem for democracy insofar as democracy is seen as the articulation, combination and promotion of political values, demands and preferences that direct policies and seek to find a ground beyond the political elites, not mere regular elections.”

In the industrial and high-end professional photography market, some camera systems use modular (removable) image sensors. For example, some medium format SLR cameras, such as the Mamiya 645D series, allow installation of either a digital camera back or a traditional photographic film back.

A few 35 mm cameras have had digital camera backs made by their manufacturer, Leica being a notable example with the Leica R8–R9. Medium format and large format cameras (those using film stock greater than 35 mm), have a low unit production, and typical digital backs for them cost over $10,000. These cameras also tend to be highly modular, with handgrips, film backs, winders, and lenses available separately to fit various needs.

Schmuck, D., Heiss, R., & Matthes, J. (2020). Drifting further apart? How exposure to media portrayals of Muslims affects attitude polarization. Political Psychology.

Steven Sasson, an engineer at Eastman Kodak, built a self-contained electronic camera that used a monochrome Fairchild CCD image sensor in 1975.[17][18][19] Around the same time, Fujifilm began developing CCD technology in the 1970s.[20] Early uses were mainly military and scientific; followed by medical and news applications.[21]

In 2013, Sony released two add-on camera models without display, to be used with a smartphone or tablet, controlled by a mobile application via WiFi.[46]

Tucker, Joshua & Guess, Andrew & Barbera, Pablo & Vaccari, Cristian & Siegel, Alexandra & Sanovich, Sergey & Stukal, Denis & Nyhan, Brendan. (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature. SSRN Electronic Journal. 10.2139/ssrn.3144139.

« Back to Glossary IndexPolitical Polarization Political polarization can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes. Almost all discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In most two-party systems, political polarization embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities. Mass polarization or popular polarization occurs when an electorate’s attitudes towards political issues, policies, and celebrated figures are neatly divided along party lines. At the extreme, each camp questions the moral legitimacy of the other, viewing the opposing camp and its policies as an existential threat to their way of life or the nation as a whole. Many political scientists consider political polarization a top-down process, in which elite polarization leads to — or at least precedes — popular polarization. Political polarization, according to an article by Emilia Palonen, is a political tool — articulated to demarcate frontiers between ‘us’ and ‘them’ and to stake out communities perceived as moral orders. Palonen writes that “polarization is a situation in which two groups create each other through demarcation of the frontier between them. The dominant political frontier creates a point of identification and confrontation in the political system, where consensus is found only within the political camps themselves.” Polarization is reproduced in all political and social contexts with an intensity that distinguishes it from mere two-party politics, according to Palonen who says “It is a totalizing system, as it aims to dominate the existing systems of differences and identities. Similar logic can be found in other polarized contexts, such as those in the USA or Italy. The situation constitutes a problem for democracy insofar as democracy is seen as the articulation, combination and promotion of political values, demands and preferences that direct policies and seek to find a ground beyond the political elites, not mere regular elections.” Palonen says that in polarization there is no middle ground. One has to choose sides. The political opponent is turned into an enemy, with an illegitimate and threatening position. Polarization also requires consensus on both sides of the main frontier, there is little space for diversity. Political polarization produces strong leaders due to the lack of contestation from within the party or coalition. They in turn secure their position by strengthening the polarization. This has been the main rhetorical strategy of Viktor Orban, a key populist politician in post-Communist Hungary, the leader of the Fidesz party. In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry different meanings for the two poles. According to Palonen, the two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus. “Usually, but not exclusively, populism is attributed to small radical parties, which often rally on nationhood and anti-elitism, and are very successful in using media in order to put their message through,” says Palonen. “Alternatively, one of the main parties is seen as a populist. In Hungary there are two,” reminds Palonen and adds that “Populism is a hegemonic formation. They profess black-and-white rhetoric on the people and the elite, the tendential empty stances on values and policies and a stark confrontation with the political adversary. Post-Communist politics in Hungary are politics of a bipolar hegemony and competing populism. A ‘hegemonic formation’ fixes a maximum amount of meanings together or blocks them out of it. In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry meanings for the two poles. The two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus.” According to Palonen, polarization solves the initial problem of fragmentation, lack of unity, by instituting a frontier that sustains two communities as a bipolar hegemony. It requires constant rearticulation and, therefore, constant antagonism on that frontier… “Similar to the one-party system or consensus, polarization and bipolar hegemony bracket out less important demands and maintain an illusion of unity, rejecting anything that might shake internal cohesion,” she underlines.  On the other hand, a World Bank report shows that many countries in Europe and Central Asia (ECA) are witnessing significant political polarization. Increasing numbers of voters appear to be moving away from centrist positions, abandoning long-held political commitments, and losing faith in established parties and to some extent institutions… Many issues — including economic difficulties, ethnic rivalries, the refugee crisis, and geopolitical tensions — may be driving political polarization in ECA. The importance of each varies by country. There does appear to have been some shift across ECA away from traditional, more centrist political parties, as well as toward more populist political opinions, since the beginning of this century. According to an article by Samuel Handlin, extremely polarized politics in countries such as Bolivia, Ecuador and Venezuela emerged through a mechanism termed polarizing populism, in which political outsiders leveraged popular anti-systemic appeals to underwrite otherwise risky and highly controversial policy programs. The occurrence (or not) of polarizing populism in South America, in turn, can be explained by the conjunction of state crises before the left turn period and the strength of the extant infrastructure of left-wing political mobilization each country possessed as the post–Cold War era began, which shaped incentives for outsiders to build ideologically narrow or broad elite coalitions. Handlin says highly polarizing party systems in South America emerged through a mechanism of ‘polarizing populism,’ distinguished by two characteristics: i) Populist figures and movements emerged to challenge for, and often win, executive power. ii) These populist figures not only politicized a pro-systemic/anti-systemic dimension of politics, but they also advanced radical programmatic agendas greatly at odds with those of status quo opponents. Meanwhile, a central claim of Hadlin’s article is that polarizing populism is enabled by state crises. State crises refer to situations characterized by two necessary elements: i) States perform poorly: Basic institutions such as the public administration, the judiciary, and the police prove inefficient and highly corrupt in their conduct and provision of goods and services. ii) Citizens come to possess very little confidence in these basic state institutions and government in general.  However, polarizing populism required not just state crisis but also contextual conditions that induced outsiders to build elite coalitions on the left. The proesses by which populist outsiders build movements, especially the coalitions and alliances they forge, therefore become critical in determining whether populists will adopt pragmatic or polarizing positions, and therefore whether or not they will transform party systems in highly polarizing directions. Read More Jennifer McCoy & Murat Somer, Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1, January 2018. Webster, Steven W., and Alan I. Abramowitz. 2017. The Ideological Foundations of Affective Polarization in the U.S. Electorate. American Politics Research 45: 621- 647. Alan Abramowitz and Jennifer McCoy, “United States: Racial Resentment, Negative Partisanship and Polarization in Trump’s America,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681:1(January 2019): 137-156.  Abramowitz, Alan I. 2010. The Disappearing Center: Engaged Citizens, Polarization and American Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press. Jennifer McCoy and Murat Somer, “Toward a Theory of Pernicious Polarization and How it Harms Democracy: Comparative Evidence and Possible Remedies,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681, no. 1 (January 2019): 234-271. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2014. Long-Term Trends and Short-Term Forecasts: The Transformation of U.S. Presidential Elections in an Age of Polarization. PS: Political Science and Politics: 47, April: 289-292. Abramowitz, Alan I. I. 2010. Transformation and Polarization: The 2008 Presidential Election and the New American Electorate. Electoral Studies, 29: 594-603. Abramowitz, Alan I., and Kyle L. Saunders. 2008. Is Polarization a Myth? Journal of Politics, 70: 542-555. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2007. Don’t Blame Primary Voters for Polarization. The Forum: A Journal of Applied Research in Contemporary Politics, Issue 4, Article 4. Abramowitz, Alan I. and Walter J. Stone. 2006. The Bush Effect: Polarization, Turnout, and Activism in the 2004 Presidential Election. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36: 141-154. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2017. It Wasn’t the Economy, Stupid: Racial Polarization, White Racial Resentment, and the Rise of Trump. In Larry Sabato, Kyle Kondik and Geoff Skelley, eds., Trumped: The 2016 Election that Broke All the Rules. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. The New American Electorate: Partisan, Sorted and Polarized. In James Thurber, ed., American Gridlock: The Sources, Character and Impact of Political Polarization. New York: Cambridge University Press. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. How Race and Religion Have Polarized American Voters. In Daniel J. Hopkins and John Sides, eds., Political Polarization in American Politics. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. Partisan Nation: The Rise of Affective Polarization in the American Electorate. In John Green, Daniel Coffey and David Cohen, eds., The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties, 7th edition. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2013. Voting in a Time of Polarization: Why Barack Obama Won the 2012 Presidential Election and What It Means. In Larry J. Sabato, ed., Barack Obama and the New America: The 2012 Election and the Changing Face of Politics. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. Grand Old Tea Party: Partisan Polarization and the Rise of the Tea Party Movement. In Lawrence Rosenthal and Christine Trost, eds., Steep: The Precipitous Rise of the Tea Party. Berkeley: University of California Press. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. American Political Parties in an Age of Polarization. In Mark D. Brewer and L. Sandy Maisel, eds., The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns, 5th edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2011. U.S. Senate Elections in an Age of Polarization. In Burdett Loomis, ed., The U.S. Senate: From Delay to Dysfunction, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press. Abramowitz, Alan I., and Kyle L. Saunders. 1997. Party Polarization and Ideological Realignment in the U.S. Electorate, 1976-1994. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond, 3rd edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Stone, Walter J., Ronald B. Rapoport and Alan I. Abramowitz. 1990. The Reagan Revolution and Party Polarization in the 1980s. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond: Changes in the American Party System. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Manuel Anselmi, Populism, social polarization and hybrid regimes: the case of Venezuela. In: Flaminia Saccà. Globalization and Socio-political New trends. (2016) p. 89-103, ROMA: Eurilink Edizioni Srl, ISBN:978-88-97931-81-2 Barberá, P. “Social Media, Echo Chambers, and Political Polarization”, forthcoming. Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, edited by Nate Persily and Joshua Tucker. Cambridge University Press. Tucker, J., Guess, A., Barberá, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich, S., Stukal, D. & Nyhan, B. “Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature”, Report prepared for the Hewle Foundation, 2018. Castanho Silva, Bruno. (2017). Populist radical right parties and mass polarization in the Netherlands. European Political Science Review. 10. 1-26. 10.1017/S1755773917000066. Polarization and partisanship: Key drivers of distrust in media old and new? — J Suiter, R Fletcher; European Journal of Communication, 0267323120903685 “Populist polarization and the slow death of democracy in Ecuador”, Carlos de la Torre, Andrés Ortiz,. Democratization, 23 (2) 2016, 221-241, DOI:10.1080/13510347.2015.1058784 Firat, Rengin B. and Pascal Boyer. 2015. “Coalitional Affiliation as a Missing Link Between Ethnic Polarization and Well-being: An Empirical Test from the European Social Survey.” Social Science Research, Vol. 53, pg. 148-161. Impact of Customizability Technology on Political Polarization — Dylko, Ivan; Dolgov, Igor; Hoffman, William; Eckhart, Nicholas; Molina, Maria; Aaziz, Omar; Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 02 January 2018, Vol.15(1), pp.19-33. Gulbrandsen, Trygve Jens & Hoffmann-Lange, Ursula (2007). Consensus or polarization? Business and Labour Elites in Germany and Norway, In Fredrik Engelstad & Trygve Jens Gulbrandsen (ed.), Comparative Studies of Social and Political Elites. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7623-1379-2. Samuel Handlin, State Crisis in Fragile Democracies: Polarization and Political Regimes in South America. Cambridge University Press, 2017. Somer, Murat, and Jennifer McCoy. “Transformations through Polarizations and Global Threats to Democracy.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 681, no. 1 (January, 2019): 8–22.  “The Logic of Polarizing Populism: State Crises and Polarization in South America,” Samuel Handlin, American Behavioral Scientist, 2018. Special issue on Polarization and Democracy. Murat Somer and Jennifer McCoy, “Introduction: Déjà vu? Polarization and Endangered Democracies in the 21st Century” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1, (January 2018): 3-15. Jennifer McCoy, Tahmina Rahman, and Murat Somer. “Polarization and the Global Crisis of Democracy: Common Patterns, Dynamics and Pernicious Consequences for Democratic Polities” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1 (January 2018): 16-42. Alban Lauka, Jennifer McCoy and Rengin B. Firat. “Mass Partisan Polarization: Measuring a Relational Concept” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1 (January 2018): 107-126. Where populist citizens get the news: An investigation of news audience polarization along populist attitudes in 11 countries — A Schulz; Communication Monographs, 2019, 86 (1), 88-111. Schmuck, D., Heiss, R., & Matthes, J. (2020). Drifting further apart? How exposure to media portrayals of Muslims affects attitude polarization. Political Psychology. Dynamics of Polarization in the Greek Case — Andreadis, Ioannis; Stavrakakis, Yannis; Mccoy, Jennifer (Editor); Somer, Murat (Editor); The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January 2019, Vol.681(1), pp.157-172. Suiter, Jane & Fletcher, Richard. (2020). Polarization and partisanship: Key drivers of distrust in media old and new?. European Journal of Communication. 026732312090368. 10.1177/0267323120903685. Tucker, Joshua & Guess, Andrew & Barbera, Pablo & Vaccari, Cristian & Siegel, Alexandra & Sanovich, Sergey & Stukal, Denis & Nyhan, Brendan. (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature. SSRN Electronic Journal. 10.2139/ssrn.3144139. Jensen, C. & J.P.F. Thomsen (2011). “Can Party Competition Amplify Mass Ideological Polarization over Public Policy? The Case of Ethnic Exclusionism in Denmark and Sweden, Party Politics, 19(5): 821–840. P. Barberá, C. Vaccari, A. Valeriani (2017). ‘Social Media, Personalization of News Reporting, and Media Systems’ Polarization in Europe’. In M. Barisione, A. Michailidou (Eds), Social Media and European Politics: Rethinking Power and Legitimacy in the Digital Era. London: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN: 978-1-137-59889-9, pp. 25-52. J. Tucker, A. Guess, P. Barbera, C. Vaccari, A. Siegel, S. Sanovich, D. Stukal, B. Nyhan (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature, commissioned by the Hewlett Foundation. Hameleers, M., & van der Meer, G. L. A. (2020). Misinformation and polarization in a high-choice media environment: How effective are political fact-checkers? Communication Research, 47, 227-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218819671 D.C. Trilling, M. van Klingeren & Y Tsfati (2016). Selective exposure, political polarization, and possible mediators: Evidence from the Netherlands. International Journal of Public Opinion Research.  Federico Vegetti, Zoltán Fazekas and Zsombor Méder. “Sorting your way out: perceived party posi- tions, political knowledge, and polarization.” 2017 Acta Politica, 52(4), 479–501. Political elites and immigration in Italy: party competition, polarization and new cleavages — D Di Mauro, L Verzichelli, Contemporary Italian Politics, 2019, 1-14. Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Winter, Stephan & Yu, Xudong. (2020). Social Norms and Selectivity: Effects of Norms of Open-Mindedness on Content Selection and Affective Polarization. Mass Communication and Society. 10.1080/15205436.2020.1714663. Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Garrett, R. Kelly. (2018). Social Identity, Selective Exposure, and Affective Polarization: How Priming National Identity Shapes Attitudes Toward Immigrants Via News Selection. Human Communication Research. 44. 10.1093/hcr/hqx010. Yang, JungHwan & Rojas, Hernando & Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Aalberg, Toril & Coen, Sharon & James, Curran & Hayashi, Kaori & Iyengar, Shanto & Jones, Paul & Mazzoleni, Gianpietro & Papathanassopoulos, Stylianos & Rhee, June & Rowe, David & Soroka, Stuart & Tiffen, Rodney. (2016). Why Are “Others” So Polarized? Perceived Political Polarization and Media Use in 10 Countries. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 10.1111/jcc4.12166. Yang, J., Rojas, H., Wojcieszak, M., et al. (2016). Why are “others” so polarized? Perceived political polarization and media use in 10 countries. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 21(5), 349- 367. Wojcieszak, M. (2011). Deliberation and Attitude Polarization. Journal of Communication 61, 596–617. Wojcieszak, M. (2015). Political Polarization. In G. Mazzoleni (Ed.) International Encyclopedia of Political Communication. ICA Wiley-Blackwell International Encyclopedia. London: Wiley-Blackwell. Press-party parallelism and polarization of news media during an election campaign: The case of the 2011 Turkish elections — A Çarkoğlu, L Baruh, K Yıldırım, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 2014, 19 (3), 295-317. Press-party parallelism and polarization of news media during an election campaign: The case of the 2011 Turkish elections — A Çarkoğlu, L Baruh, K Yıldırım, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 2014, 19 (3), 295-317. Related Articles: QAnon: A Conspiracy Cult or Quasi-Religion of Modern Times?Prof. Pappas: We need creative leaders with realistic agendas against populismReligious Populism, Cyberspace and Digital Authoritarianism in Asia: India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, and TurkeyCivilizationist Populism in South Asia: Turning India SaffronCivilizational Populism Around the WorldRelated Terms:Term: Populist Radical RightTerm: Social MediaTerm: PopulismTerm: MediaTerm: The PeopleTerm: The EliteTerm: OutsidersTerm: Status Quo

Such cameras are also commonly used to make photo finishes, to determine the winner when multiple competitors cross the finishing line at nearly the same time. They can also be used as industrial instruments for analyzing fast processes.

Digital superzoom cameras are digital cameras that can zoom in very far. These superzoom cameras are suitable for people who have nearsightedness.

Many camera phones and most stand alone digital cameras store image data in flash memory cards or other removable media. Most stand-alone cameras use SD format, while a few use CompactFlash, CFexpress or other types. In January 2012, a faster XQD card format was announced.[86] In early 2014, some high end cameras have two hot-swappable memory slots. Photographers can swap one of the memory card with camera-on. Each memory slot can accept either Compact Flash or SD Card. All new Sony cameras also have two memory slots, one for its Memory Stick and one for SD Card, but not hot-swapable.[87]

The Canon RC-701, introduced in May 1986, was the first SVF camera (and the first electronic SLR camera) sold in the US. It employed an SLR viewfinder, included a 2/3" format color CCD sensor with 380K pixels, and was sold along with a removable 11-66mm and 50-150mm zoom lens.[23]

Polarizationdefinition politics

The HX series is a series containing Sony's superzoom cameras like HX20V, HX90V and the newest HX99. HX stands for HyperXoom.

A lower resolution extends the number of remaining photos in free space, postponing the exhaustion of space storage, which is of use where no further data storage device is available, and for captures of lower significance, where the benefit from less space storage consumption outweighs the disadvantage from reduced detail.[37]

Murat Somer and Jennifer McCoy, “Introduction: Déjà vu? Polarization and Endangered Democracies in the 21st Century” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1, (January 2018): 3-15.

The approximate count of remaining photos until space exhaustion is calculated by the firmware throughout use and indicated in the viewfinder, to prepare the user for an impending necessary hot swap of the memory card, and/or file offload.

Since it is much easier to manufacture a high-quality linear CCD array with only thousands of pixels than a CCD matrix with millions, very high resolution linear CCD camera backs were available much earlier than their CCD matrix counterparts. For example, you could buy an (albeit expensive) camera back with over 7,000 pixel horizontal resolution in the mid-1990s. However, as of 2004[update], it is still difficult to buy a comparable CCD matrix camera of the same resolution. Rotating line cameras, with about 10,000 color pixels in its sensor line, are able, as of 2005[update], to capture about 120,000 lines during one full 360 degree rotation, thereby creating a single digital image of 1,200 Megapixels.

Press-party parallelism and polarization of news media during an election campaign: The case of the 2011 Turkish elections — A Çarkoğlu, L Baruh, K Yıldırım, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 2014, 19 (3), 295-317.

P. Barberá, C. Vaccari, A. Valeriani (2017). ‘Social Media, Personalization of News Reporting, and Media Systems’ Polarization in Europe’. In M. Barisione, A. Michailidou (Eds), Social Media and European Politics: Rethinking Power and Legitimacy in the Digital Era. London: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN: 978-1-137-59889-9, pp. 25-52.

Samuel Handlin, State Crisis in Fragile Democracies: Polarization and Political Regimes in South America. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Digital Still Camera (DSC), such as the Sony DSC cameras, is a type of camera that does not use a reflex mirror. DSCs are like point-and-shoot cameras and are the most common type of cameras, due to their comfortable price and its quality.[citation needed]

Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use. Almost all include an automatic mode, or "auto mode", which automatically makes all camera settings for the user. Some also have manual controls. Compact digital cameras typically contain a small sensor that trades-off picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. A few high-end compact digital cameras have a hotshoe for connecting to an external flash. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo on an integrated LCD. In addition to being able to take still photographs almost all compact cameras have the ability to record video.

When digital cameras became common, many photographers asked whether their film cameras could be converted to digital. The answer was not immediately clear, as it differed among models. For the majority of 35 mm film cameras the answer is no, the reworking and cost would be too great, especially as lenses have been evolving as well as cameras. For most a conversion to digital, to give enough space for the electronics and allow a liquid crystal display to preview, would require removing the back of the camera and replacing it with a custom built digital unit.

A digital camera resolution is determined by a digital sensor. The digital sensor indicates a high level of sharpness can be produced through the amount of noise and grain that is tolerated through the lens of the camera. Resolution within the field of digital still and digital movies is indicated through the camera's ability to determine detail based on the distance which is then measured by frame size, pixel type, number, and organization although some DSLR cameras have resolutions limited, it is almost impossible to not have the proper sharpness for an image. The ISO choice when taking a photo affects the quality of the image as high ISO settings equate to an image that is less sharp due to the increased amount of noise allowed into the image along with too little noise can also produce an image that is not sharp.[38]

In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry different meanings for the two poles. According to Palonen, the two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus. “Usually, but not exclusively, populism is attributed to small radical parties, which often rally on nationhood and anti-elitism, and are very successful in using media in order to put their message through,” says Palonen.

Jennifer McCoy & Murat Somer, Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1, January 2018.

Polarizationdefinition in Chemistry

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. Grand Old Tea Party: Partisan Polarization and the Rise of the Tea Party Movement. In Lawrence Rosenthal and Christine Trost, eds., Steep: The Precipitous Rise of the Tea Party. Berkeley: University of California Press.

PolarizationDefinition history

As of 2014, bridge cameras come in two principal classes in terms of sensor size, firstly the more traditional 1/2.3" sensor (as measured by image sensor format) which gives more flexibility in lens design and allows for handholdable zoom from 20 to 24 mm (35 mm equivalent) wide angle all the way up to over 1000 mm supertele, and secondly a 1" sensor that allows better image quality particularly in low light (higher ISO) but puts greater constraints on lens design, resulting in zoom lenses that stop at 200 mm (constant aperture, e.g. Sony RX10) or 400 mm (variable aperture, e.g. Panasonic Lumix FZ1000) equivalent, corresponding to an optical zoom factor of roughly 10 to 15.

An image's sharpness is presented through the crisp detail, defined lines, and its depicted contrast. Sharpness is a factor of multiple systems throughout the DSLR camera by its ISO, resolution, lens and the lens settings, the environment of the image, and its post-processing. Images have a possibility of being too sharp but they can never be too in focus.

Digital cameras come in a wide range of sizes, prices, and capabilities. In addition to general-purpose digital cameras, specialized cameras including multispectral imaging equipment and astrographs are used for scientific, military, medical, and other special purposes.

The very large sensor these backs use leads to enormous image sizes. For example, Phase One's P45 39 MP image back creates a single TIFF image of size up to 224.6 MB, and even greater pixel counts are available. Medium format digitals such as this are geared more towards studio and portrait photography than their smaller DSLR counterparts; the ISO speed in particular tends to have a maximum of 400, versus 6400 for some DSLR cameras. (Canon EOS-1D Mark IV and Nikon D3S have ISO 12800 plus Hi-3 ISO 102400 with the Canon EOS-1Dx's ISO of 204800).

Some bridge cameras have a lens thread to attach accessories such as wide-angle or telephoto converters as well as filters such as UV or Circular Polarizing filter and lens hoods. The scene is composed by viewing the display or the electronic viewfinder (EVF). Most have a slightly longer shutter lag than a DSLR. Many of these cameras can store images in a raw format in addition to supporting JPEG.[a] The majority have a built-in flash, but only a few have a hotshoe.

Abramowitz, Alan I. I. 2010. Transformation and Polarization: The 2008 Presidential Election and the New American Electorate. Electoral Studies, 29: 594-603.

The first commercial camera phone was the Kyocera Visual Phone VP-210, released in Japan in May 1999.[27] It was called a "mobile videophone" at the time,[28] and had a 110,000-pixel front-facing camera.[27] It stored up to 20 JPEG digital images, which could be sent over e-mail, or the phone could send up to two images per second over Japan's Personal Handy-phone System (PHS) cellular network.[27] The Samsung SCH-V200, released in South Korea in June 2000, was also one of the first phones with a built-in camera. It had a TFT liquid-crystal display (LCD) and stored up to 20 digital photos at 350,000-pixel resolution. However, it could not send the resulting image over the telephone function but required a computer connection to access photos.[29] The first mass-market camera phone was the J-SH04, a Sharp J-Phone model sold in Japan in November 2000.[30][29] It could instantly transmit pictures via cell phone telecommunication.[31] By the mid-2000s, higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera and by the early 2010s, almost all smartphones had an integrated digital camera.[32]

Some DVD recorders and television sets can read memory cards used in cameras; alternatively several types of flash card readers have TV output capability.

Compact cameras are intended to be portable (pocketable) and are particularly suitable for casual "snapshots". Point-and-shoot cameras usually fall under this category.

“Populist polarization and the slow death of democracy in Ecuador”, Carlos de la Torre, Andrés Ortiz,. Democratization, 23 (2) 2016, 221-241, DOI:10.1080/13510347.2015.1058784

The resolution of a digital camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into discrete signals. The brighter the image at a given point on the sensor, the larger the value that is read for that pixel. Depending on the physical structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used, which requires demosaicing to recreate a full-color image. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the camera's "pixel count". In a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000-pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, or 1 megapixel.

Many incorporate a retractable lens assembly that provides optical zoom. In most models, an auto-actuating lens cover protects the lens from elements. Most ruggedized or water-resistant models do not retract, and most with superzoom capability do not retract fully.

In the 1960s, Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory was thinking about how to use a mosaic photosensor to capture digital images. His idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts' position.[14] As with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcock's film-less camera (US patent 4,057,830) in 1972,[15] the technology had yet to catch up with the concept.

An instant-print camera, is a digital camera with a built-in printer.[80] This confers a similar functionality as an instant camera which uses instant film to quickly generate a physical photograph. Such non-digital cameras were popularized by Polaroid with the SX-70 in 1972.[81]

GoPro and other brands offer action cameras that are rugged, small, and can be easily attached to helmets, arms, bicycles, etc. Most have a wide angle and fixed focus and can take still pictures and video, typically with sound.

The filesystem in a digital camera contains a DCIM (Digital Camera IMages) directory, which can contain multiple subdirectories with names such as "123ABCDE" that consist of a unique directory number (in the range 100...999) and five alphanumeric characters, which may be freely chosen and often refer to a camera maker. These directories contain files with names such as "ABCD1234.JPG" that consist of four alphanumeric characters (often "100_", "DSC0", "DSCF", "IMG_", "MOV_", or "P000"), followed by a number. Handling of directories with possibly user-created duplicate numbers may vary among camera firmwares.

Many devices have a built-in digital camera, including, for example, smartphones, mobile phones, PDAs and laptop computers. Built-in cameras generally store the images in the JPEG file format, although cameras in Apple's iPhone line have used the HEIC format since 2017. [69]

Gulbrandsen, Trygve Jens & Hoffmann-Lange, Ursula (2007). Consensus or polarization? Business and Labour Elites in Germany and Norway, In Fredrik Engelstad & Trygve Jens Gulbrandsen (ed.), Comparative Studies of Social and Political Elites. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7623-1379-2.

Olympus and Panasonic released many Micro Four Thirds cameras with interchangeable lenses that are fully compatible with each other without any adapter, while others have proprietary mounts. In 2014, Kodak released its first Micro Four Third system camera.[53]

Alban Lauka, Jennifer McCoy and Rengin B. Firat. “Mass Partisan Polarization: Measuring a Relational Concept” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1 (January 2018): 107-126.

Mass polarization or popular polarization occurs when an electorate’s attitudes towards political issues, policies, and celebrated figures are neatly divided along party lines. At the extreme, each camp questions the moral legitimacy of the other, viewing the opposing camp and its policies as an existential threat to their way of life or the nation as a whole. Many political scientists consider political polarization a top-down process, in which elite polarization leads to — or at least precedes — popular polarization.

Digital cameras that utilize off-the-shelf batteries are typically designed to be able to use both single-use disposable and rechargeable batteries, but not with both types in use at the same time. The most common off-the-shelf battery size used is AA. CR2, CR-V3 batteries, and AAA batteries are also used in some cameras. The CR2 and CR-V3 batteries are lithium based, intended for a single use. Rechargeable RCR-V3 lithium-ion batteries are also available as an alternative to non-rechargeable CR-V3 batteries.

Depolarization definition

In January 2008, Silicon Image announced a new technology for sending video from mobile devices to a television in digital form. MHL sends pictures as a video stream, up to 1080p resolution, and is compatible with HDMI.[82]

Jennifer McCoy, Tahmina Rahman, and Murat Somer. “Polarization and the Global Crisis of Democracy: Common Patterns, Dynamics and Pernicious Consequences for Democratic Polities” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1 (January 2018): 16-42.

The sensor also known as a full-frame sensor is much larger than the other types, typically 18mm to 36mm on the diagonal (crop factor 2, 1.6, or 1).[63] The larger sensor permits more light to be received by each pixel; this, combined with the relatively large lenses provides superior low-light performance. For the same field of view and the same aperture, a larger sensor gives shallower focus. DSLRs can equip interchangeable lenses for versatility by removing it from the lens mount of the camera, typically a silver ring on the front side of DSLRs.[64] These lenses work in tandem with the mechanics of the DSLR to adjust aperture and focus. Autofocus is accomplished using sensors in the mirror box and on most modern lenses can be activated from the lens itself which will trigger upon shutter release.[63]

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2011. U.S. Senate Elections in an Age of Polarization. In Burdett Loomis, ed., The U.S. Senate: From Delay to Dysfunction, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Impact of Customizability Technology on Political Polarization — Dylko, Ivan; Dolgov, Igor; Hoffman, William; Eckhart, Nicholas; Molina, Maria; Aaziz, Omar; Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 02 January 2018, Vol.15(1), pp.19-33.

For low cost and small size, these cameras typically use image sensor formats with a diagonal between 6 and 11 mm, corresponding to a crop factor between 7 and 4. This gives them weaker low-light performance, greater depth of field, generally closer focusing ability, and smaller components than cameras using larger sensors. Some cameras use a larger sensor including, at the high end, a pricey full-frame sensor compact camera, such as Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1, but have capability near that of a DSLR.

Digital cameras have become smaller over time, resulting in an ongoing need to develop a battery small enough to fit in the camera and yet able to power it for a reasonable length of time.[citation needed]

Many modern cameras support the PictBridge standard, which allows them to send data directly to a PictBridge-capable printer without the need for a computer. PictBridge uses PTP to transfer images and control information.

Hameleers, M., & van der Meer, G. L. A. (2020). Misinformation and polarization in a high-choice media environment: How effective are political fact-checkers? Communication Research, 47, 227-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218819671

In 1972, the Landsat 1 satellite's multispectral scanner (MSS) started taking digital images of Earth. The MSS, designed by Virginia Norwood at Hughes Aircraft Company starting in 1969, captured and transmitted image data from green, red, and two infrared bands with 6 bits per channel, using a mechanical rocking mirror and an array of 24 detectors. Operating for six years, it transmitted more than 300,000 digital photographs of Earth, while orbiting the planet about 14 times per day.

Press-party parallelism and polarization of news media during an election campaign: The case of the 2011 Turkish elections — A Çarkoğlu, L Baruh, K Yıldırım, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 2014, 19 (3), 295-317.