As the f-number decreases, the camera is able to gather light from a larger angle, giving wide-angle photography. As usual there is a trade-off. A greater f/# means less light reaches the image plane. A setting of f/16 usually allows one to take pictures in bright sunlight as the aperture diameter is small. In optical fibers, light needs to be focused into the fiber. Figure 4 shows the angle used in calculating the NA of an optical fiber.

When any source of light reaches your spectacles, it strikes the back of your lenses and reflects. The reflection from the front of the lens will prevent others from seeing your eyes and the reflection from the back of the lens will be seen by you. This is the reason you may sometimes see your own eyes reflected in a pair of uncoated glasses, and it’s one of the best reasons to use an anti-reflective coating on your glasses.

Now we must find the magnification of the eyepiece, which is given by [latex]m_{\text{e}}=-\frac{d_{\text{i}}\prime}{d_{\text{o}}\prime}\\[/latex], where di′ and do′ are the image and object distances for the eyepiece (see Figure 2). The object distance is the distance of the first image from the eyepiece. Since the first image is 186 mm to the right of the objective and the eyepiece is 230 mm to the right of the objective, the object distance is do′ = 230 mm − 186 mm = 44.0 mm. This places the first image closer to the eyepiece than its focal length, so that the eyepiece will form a case 2 image as shown in the figure. We still need to find the location of the final image di′ in order to find the magnification. This is done as before to obtain a value for [latex]\frac{1}{d_{\text{i}}\prime}\\[/latex]:

When using a microscope, we rely on gathering light to form an image. Hence most specimens need to be illuminated, particularly at higher magnifications, when observing details that are so small that they reflect only small amounts of light. To make such objects easily visible, the intensity of light falling on them needs to be increased. Special illuminating systems called condensers are used for this purpose. The type of condenser that is suitable for an application depends on how the specimen is examined, whether by transmission, scattering or reflecting. See Figure 6 for an example of each. White light sources are common and lasers are often used. Laser light illumination tends to be quite intense and it is important to ensure that the light does not result in the degradation of the specimen.

As the coating applied to your lenses makes smudges more visible, caution is advised in cleaning your new glasses. Using a microfiber cloth is highly recommended, as any other fabric may damage or remove the coating. It’s also recommended to use a spray lens cleaner which will help to lift dust and dirt without scratching the lens. Your glasses should be stored in its protective casing when not in use, to minimise accidental damage to the frame, lenses or coating.

Figure 7. An electron microscope has the capability to image individual atoms on a material. The microscope uses vacuum technology, sophisticated detectors and state of the art image processing software. (credit: Dave Pape)

One of the drawbacks of any corrective prescription or even a normal pair of sunglasses is reflection from the lens surface. With anti-glare (anti-reflective) glasses, you can see and be seen clearer than ever before.

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Can the NA be larger than 1.00? The answer is ‘yes’ if we use immersion lenses in which a medium such as oil, glycerine or water is placed between the objective and the microscope cover slip. This minimizes the mismatch in refractive indices as light rays go through different media, generally providing a greater light-gathering ability and an increase in resolution. Figure 5 shows light rays when using air and immersion lenses.

Anti-glare (anti-reflective) glasses do not reduce the amount of light that reaches your eyes. In fact, anti-glare (anti-reflective) coating can improve your night vision when you wear it because more light can reach your eyes with no glare blocking your vision. This makes them a recommended choice for a night drive, for leisure or professional work.

We normally associate microscopes with visible light but x ray and electron microscopes provide greater resolution. The focusing and basic physics is the same as that just described, even though the lenses require different technology. The electron microscope requires vacuum chambers so that the electrons can proceed unheeded. Magnifications of 50 million times provide the ability to determine positions of individual atoms within materials. An electron microscope is shown in Figure 7.

compound microscope: a microscope constructed from two convex lenses, the first serving as the ocular lens(close to the eye) and the second serving as the objective lens

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Normal optical microscopes can magnify up to 1500× with a theoretical resolution of −0.2 μm. The lenses can be quite complicated and are composed of multiple elements to reduce aberrations. Microscope objective lenses are particularly important as they primarily gather light from the specimen. Three parameters describe microscope objectives: the numerical aperture (NA), the magnification (m), and the working distance. The NA is related to the light gathering ability of a lens and is obtained using the angle of acceptance θ formed by the maximum cone of rays focusing on the specimen (see Figure 3a) and is given by NA = n sin α, where n is the refractive index of the medium between the lens and the specimen and [latex]\alpha=\frac{\theta}{2}\\[/latex]. As the angle of acceptance given by θ increases, NA becomes larger and more light is gathered from a smaller focal region giving higher resolution. A 0.75 NA objective gives more detail than a 0.10 NA objective.

Microscopes were first developed in the early 1600s by eyeglass makers in The Netherlands and Denmark. The simplest compound microscope is constructed from two convex lenses as shown schematically in Figure 2. The first lens is called the objective lens, and has typical magnification values from 5× to 100×. In standard microscopes, the objectives are mounted such that when you switch between objectives, the sample remains in focus. Objectives arranged in this way are described as parfocal. The second, the eyepiece, also referred to as the ocular, has several lenses which slide inside a cylindrical barrel. The focusing ability is provided by the movement of both the objective lens and the eyepiece. The purpose of a microscope is to magnify small objects, and both lenses contribute to the final magnification. Additionally, the final enlarged image is produced in a location far enough from the observer to be easily viewed, since the eye cannot focus on objects or images that are too close.

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This situation is similar to that shown in Figure 2. To find the overall magnification, we must find the magnification of the objective, then the magnification of the eyepiece. This involves using the thin lens equation.

Figure 3. (a) The numerical aperture of a microscope objective lens refers to the light-gathering ability of the lens and is calculated using half the angle of acceptance . (b) Here, is half the acceptance angle for light rays from a specimen entering a camera lens, and is the diameter of the aperture that controls the light entering the lens.

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Anti-glare glasses, also known as anti-reflective glasses, are glasses that have had a coating applied to the lens. This coating is composed of many thin layers of materials with an alternating refraction index. These materials even out the refraction of light, reducing reflection, allowing over 99% more light to pass through the lens. Oscar Wylee applies anti-reflective coating via vacuum. This means that there will be no spray marks or uneven surfaces along your glasses. We can add this coating to many different types of lens, such as bifocal or progressive lenses. The lens coating also has a ‘bloom’ colour. This is a faint, lingering colour from the coating itself. The colour itself is most commonly green, but blue or purple coating can be found as well.

Look & See with Oscar Wylee Optometrists. We offer comprehensive Medicare bulk billed eye tests and a range of prescription glasses and sunglasses for women, men, and gender-diverse people. Blending fashion with expert eye care, Oscar Wylee is an optical company passionate about eye health and eyewear.

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Look through a clear glass or plastic bottle and describe what you see. Now fill the bottle with water and describe what you see. Use the water bottle as a lens to produce the image of a bright object and estimate the focal length of the water bottle lens. How is the focal length a function of the depth of water in the bottle?

The term f/# in general is called the f-number and is used to denote the light per unit area reaching the image plane. In photography, an image of an object at infinity is formed at the focal point and the f-number is given by the ratio of the focal length f of the lens and the diameter D of the aperture controlling the light into the lens (see Figure 3b). If the acceptance angle is small the NA of the lens can also be used as given below.

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Having an anti-reflective coating on your glasses will reduce the glare you receive from light and reflective light. This will reduce eye strain, increase vision, and prevent disruptful reflections. Because of the hardening material used in the coating, anti-reflective frames also have scratch-resistant features. The coating can also make you appear better. With the glare reduction, your facial features will be clearer for all to see. The glare blocking will also enhance your frames appearance as it will reduce distracting reflections and make you and your glasses look better in photographs due to reducing the effects of flash.

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As anti-reflective coatings reduce glare and provide enhanced clarity, any fingerprints or dust on the lens surface will appear to be more visible. It is common for people to mention that it is harder to keep their anti-reflective lenses clean. Because of the enhanced clarity the frames provide, the lenses will always be more clear to see. As a result, they will stain with fingerprints and oil smudges more often and more visibly, as well as scratches and damage being more clear in the lenses. At Oscar Wylee, we offer a premium anti-reflective coating that has anti-smudge technology which will combat this disadvantage. Our premium anti-reflective coating also includes scratch and static resistance, a great addition to any pair of optical glasses.The coating is also applied to the outside of the lens. This means extreme temperatures may affect your glasses faster than an uncoated pair.

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where do and di are the object and image distances, respectively, for the objective lens as labeled in Figure 2. The object distance is given to be do=6.20 mm, but the image distance di is not known. Isolating di, we have

For further advice about our anti-reflective coatings and other lens enhancement options, simply walk into an Oscar Wylee store and one of our friendly staff will be ready to assist you.

[latex]\displaystyle\frac{1}{d_{\text{i}}\prime}=\frac{1}{f_{\text{e}}}-\frac{1}{d_{\text{o}}\prime}=\frac{1}{50.0\text{ mm}}-\frac{1}{44.0\text{ mm}}=\frac{0.00273}{\text{mm}}\\[/latex]

[latex]m_{\text{e}}=-\frac{d_{\text{i}}\prime}{d_{\text{o}}\prime}=-\frac{-367\text{ mm}}{44.0\text{ mm}}=8.33\\[/latex].

Figure 8. The image shows a sequence of events that takes place during meiosis. (credit: PatríciaR, Wikimedia Commons; National Center for Biotechnology Information)

Figure 2. A compound microscope composed of two lenses, an objective and an eyepiece. The objective forms a case 1 image that is larger than the object. This first image is the object for the eyepiece. The eyepiece forms a case 2 final image that is further magnified.

Figure 5. Light rays from a specimen entering the objective. Paths for immersion medium of air (a), water (b) (n = 1.33), and oil (c) (n = 1.51) are shown. The water and oil immersions allow more rays to enter the objective, increasing the resolution.

5. (a) +18.3 cm (on the eyepiece side of the objective lens); (b) −60.0; (c) −11.3 cm (on the objective side of the eyepiece); (d) +6.67; (e) −400

Calculate the magnification of an object placed 6.20 mm from a compound microscope that has a 6.00 mm focal length objective and a 50.0 mm focal length eyepiece. The objective and eyepiece are separated by 23.0 cm.

numerical aperture: a number or measure that expresses the ability of a lens to resolve fine detail in an object being observed. Derived by mathematical formula NA = n sin α, where n is the refractive index of the medium between the lens and the specimen and [latex]\alpha=\frac{\theta}{2}\\[/latex]

By preventing the bright reflections and glares of both natural and artificial light, anti-glare (anti-reflective) glasses can provide a greater degree of comfort when you are working with computers. One of the greatest benefits of anti-reflection is when video conferencing. The person viewing your camera image will be able to see through to your eyes without the harsh reflection of your computer screen obstructing their view.

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Both the objective and the eyepiece contribute to the overall magnification, which is large and negative, consistent with Figure 2, where the image is seen to be large and inverted. In this case, the image is virtual and inverted, which cannot happen for a single element (case 2 and case 3 images for single elements are virtual and upright). The final image is 367 mm (0.367 m) to the left of the eyepiece. Had the eyepiece been placed farther from the objective, it could have formed a case 1 image to the right. Such an image could be projected on a screen, but it would be behind the head of the person in the figure and not appropriate for direct viewing. The procedure used to solve this example is applicable in any multiple-element system. Each element is treated in turn, with each forming an image that becomes the object for the next element. The process is not more difficult than for single lenses or mirrors, only lengthier.

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Figure 6. Illumination of a specimen in a microscope. (a) Transmitted light from a condenser lens. (b) Transmitted light from a mirror condenser. (c) Dark field illumination by scattering (the illuminating beam misses the objective lens). (d) High magnification illumination with reflected light – normally laser light.

We do not use our eyes to form images; rather images are recorded electronically and displayed on computers. In fact observing and saving images formed by optical microscopes on computers is now done routinely. Video recordings of what occurs in a microscope can be made for viewing by many people at later dates. Physics provides the science and tools needed to generate the sequence of time-lapse images of meiosis similar to the sequence sketched in Figure 8.

While the numerical aperture can be used to compare resolutions of various objectives, it does not indicate how far the lens could be from the specimen. This is specified by the “working distance,” which is the distance (in mm usually) from the front lens element of the objective to the specimen, or cover glass. The higher the NA the closer the lens will be to the specimen and the more chances there are of breaking the cover slip and damaging both the specimen and the lens. The focal length of an objective lens is different than the working distance. This is because objective lenses are made of a combination of lenses and the focal length is measured from inside the barrel. The working distance is a parameter that microscopists can use more readily as it is measured from the outermost lens. The working distance decreases as the NA and magnification both increase.

Although the eye is marvelous in its ability to see objects large and small, it obviously has limitations to the smallest details it can detect. Human desire to see beyond what is possible with the naked eye led to the use of optical instruments. In this section we will examine microscopes, instruments for enlarging the detail that we cannot see with the unaided eye. The microscope is a multiple-element system having more than a single lens or mirror. (See Figure 1.) A microscope can be made from two convex lenses. The image formed by the first element becomes the object for the second element. The second element forms its own image, which is the object for the third element, and so on. Ray tracing helps to visualize the image formed. If the device is composed of thin lenses and mirrors that obey the thin lens equations, then it is not difficult to describe their behavior numerically.

To see how the microscope in Figure 2 forms an image, we consider its two lenses in succession. The object is slightly farther away from the objective lens than its focal length fo, producing a case 1 image that is larger than the object. This first image is the object for the second lens, or eyepiece. The eyepiece is intentionally located so it can further magnify the image. The eyepiece is placed so that the first image is closer to it than its focal length fe. Thus the eyepiece acts as a magnifying glass, and the final image is made even larger. The final image remains inverted, but it is farther from the observer, making it easy to view (the eye is most relaxed when viewing distant objects and normally cannot focus closer than 25 cm). Since each lens produces a magnification that multiplies the height of the image, it is apparent that the overall magnification m is the product of the individual magnifications: m = mome, where mo is the magnification of the objective and me is the magnification of the eyepiece. This equation can be generalized for any combination of thin lenses and mirrors that obey the thin lens equations.

Blue light is believed to be a sleep disrupting light that emits from many everyday sources of artificial light, such as computer screens or cell phones. Blue light lenses and anti-reflective lenses both reduce the amount of glare that reaches your eyes from all sources of light. However, blue light glasses may be able to block high energy lights from artificial sources that may cause discomfort. Anti-glare (anti-reflective) glasses are more general in their purpose and are made to reduce disruptive reflections and allow more forms of light through your lenses. This includes the high-energy rays emitted by digital screens. Anti-reflective coating will not prevent the possible neurological effects in the way that adult or Kids blue light glasses may be able to. At Oscar Wylee, our blue light filter option includes anti-reflective technology.

When using a microscope we do not see the entire extent of the sample. Depending on the eyepiece and objective lens we see a restricted region which we say is the field of view. The objective is then manipulated in two-dimensions above the sample to view other regions of the sample. Electronic scanning of either the objective or the sample is used in scanning microscopy. The image formed at each point during the scanning is combined using a computer to generate an image of a larger region of the sample at a selected magnification.

Figure 4. Light rays enter an optical fiber. The numerical aperture of the optical fiber can be determined by using the angle αmax.