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Acton optics and coatings provide ultra-precision optical components and coatings with an emphasis on the UV/VUV spectral regions.

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Figure 3. Example of Raman spectra with the horizontal axis converted to wavelengths at 532 nm excitation and 785 nm excitation.

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See how others are using our high-performance cameras, spectrographs and optics-based solutions to advance their research and application.

Sensor size is determined by both the size of the pixels and number of pixels on the sensor. This can be optimized for each application, with larger sensors optimal for sensitivity limited applications, and smaller sensors optimal for resolution limited applications.

Figure 3 shows a simplified version of how these assumptions allow for AFOV calculation. By using trigonometry, the AFOV can be expressed as:

Raman spectroscopy can also be used to study the crystallinity of a sample. The Raman spectrum of a crystal will exhibit sharp peaks due to the vibrational modes of the crystal lattice. By analyzing the peak widths and intensities, it is possible to obtain information on the crystallinity and orientation of the crystal.

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The characteristic fingerprint pattern in a Raman spectrum enables the identification of substances, including polymorphs, and the evaluation of local crystallinity, molecular orientation, and residual stress (tensile or compressive).

There are two processes which can be used to enhance UV sensitivity for wavelengths >200 nm: UV photon conversion, and anti-reflection coatings.

Figure 2.(c)(d)(e) depict the energy diagram of Rayleigh and Raman scattering processes. The incident light interacts with the molecule and distorts the cloud of electrons to form a “virtual state”. This state is unstable, and the photon is immediately re-radiated as scattered light. Rayleigh scattering is a process in which an electron in the ground state is excited and falls back to the original ground state, involving no energy change. Consequently, Rayleigh scattered light has the same energy as the incident light, meaning both lights have the same wavelength (Figure 2.(c)).

To measure the FOV of UV, visible and infrared cameras, optical tests are commonly used. During the test, light is focused from a black body (an object that absorbs all light that falls on it) onto a test target at the focal place. By using a set of mirrors, a virtual image can be created that is at an infinitely far distance.

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There are many subcategories of UV light, each which need different sensor requirements. These include both physical and chemical sensor changes.

The Rayleigh scattering process is dominant, and Raman scattering is an extremely weak process, with only one in every 106 - 108 photons scattered. The ratio of Stokes Raman and anti-Stokes Raman scattering depends on the population of the various states of the molecule. At room temperature, the number of molecules in an excited vibrational state is smaller than that in the ground state. Therefore, generally, the intensity of Stokes Raman light is higher than that of anti-Stokes Raman light. As the temperature of the sample increases, the intensity of the anti-Stokes Raman light increases relative to the Stokes scattering light. Thus the local temperature of the sample can be measured from the intensity ratio of the two lights.

When the Raman spectrum is obtained, it contains information on the vibrational modes of the sample. Each peak in the Raman spectrum corresponds to a particular vibrational mode of the molecule. The wavenumber of the Raman peak is related to the energy of the vibrational mode and the intensity of the peak is related to the magnitude of the change in polarizability associated with the vibration. The Raman spectrum provides a unique fingerprint of the sample, allowing for the identification of different substances and the characterization of molecular vibrations.

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Figure 2.(a) Scattering of light by a molecule. (b) Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. (c)(d)(e) Diagram of the Rayleigh scattering and Raman scattering processes.

The gain relates the number of photoelectrons released to the gray levels displayed, and can be used to enhance contrast for low-light imaging.

These advantages make Raman spectroscopy crucial in research and development (R&D) and quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) in several industries and academic fields such as semiconductors, polymers, pharmaceuticals, batteries, life sciences, and more.

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Where D is the full display image dimensions (either horizontal or vertical), and d is the target dimensions (either horizontal or vertical).

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The sensor size is determined by both the number of pixels on the sensor, and the size of the pixels. Different sized pixels are used for different applications, with larger pixels used for higher sensitivity, and smaller pixels used for higher spatial resolution (find out more on Pixel Size and Camera Resolution).

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In the Raman spectra of materials with internal stress or strain, it is known that the position of the Raman peak is shifted relative to the position of the material without stress. By evaluating this peak shift, it is possible to determine whether the stress is compressive or tensile and the magnitude of the stress.

Raman thermometry is a contactless, steady state technique for measuring thermal conductivity based on probing of the local temperature using the Raman signal as a thermometer.

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The focal length of a lens converges light so that the image of an object is focused onto the sensor. This determines the angular field of view, a parameter of the overall field of view. This is defined as the angle between any light captured at the horizontal and any light captured at the edge of the of the object. All of these parameters play a role in determining the FOV of a camera and can be measured using either trigonometry and the angular field of view, or via an optical test, in which a black body is utilized to create a virtual image

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In addition to providing information on the vibrational modes of the sample, Raman spectroscopy can also be used to obtain structural information. The polarization dependence of Raman scattering can be used to determine the orientation of molecules in a sample. By changing the polarization of the excitation laser, it is possible to obtain information on the orientation of functional groups in the molecule.

Light is often expressed in terms of wavelength, but in Raman spectroscopy, it is common to use wavenumbers that are linearly related to energy and to represent the Raman spectrum in a form that is independent of the excitation wavelength. For example, the Raman peak of crystalline silicon always appears at a wavenumber of 520.3 cm-1 at room temperature, no matter what excitation wavelength is used. However, if wavelength is used as the unit of abscissa, the Raman peak of silicon appears at 547.14 nm for 532 nm excitation and at 818.43 nm for 785 nm excitation.

In contrast, Raman scattering can be classified as Stokes Raman scattering and anti-Stokes Raman scattering. Stokes Raman scattering is a process in which an electron is excited from the ground state and falls to a vibrational state, involving energy absorption by the molecule (Figure 2.(d)). Thus, Stokes Raman scattered light has less energy (longer wavelength) than incident light. On the other hand, anti-Stokes Raman scattering is a process in which an electron is excited from the vibrational state to the ground state, involving an energy transfer to the scattered photon (Figure 2.(e)). Consequently, anti-Stokes Raman scattered light has more energy (shorter wavelength) than incident light.

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Raman spectroscopy is a vibrational spectroscopy technique that provides valuable information on molecular vibrations and crystal structures with submicron spatial resolution. It is a powerful analytical technique widely used for material identification and evaluation of molecular orientation, crystallinity, and residual stress. Raman spectroscopy can also measure local temperatures, making it useful for the study of thermophysical properties.

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Raman spectroscopy is a vibrational spectroscopic technique that provides information on molecular vibrations and crystal structures. This non-destructive method uses a laser light source to irradiate a sample and generate Raman scattered light, which is detected as a Raman spectrum using a spectrometer and a CCD camera.

In a typical Raman spectroscopic analysis, Rayleigh scattering light is filtered out and only Stokes Raman scattering light is recorded. The Raman spectrum is expressed in a form of intensity of scattered light versus wavenumber (the reciprocal of wavelength, called Raman shift). For example, the Raman peak at 547.14 nm obtained by a 532 nm excitation wavelength can be converted into a wavenumber as below.

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The focal length of the lens describes the distance between the lens and the focused image on the sensor. As light passes through the lens it will either converge (positive focal length) or diverge (negative focal length), however within cameras the focal length is predominately positive. Shorter focal lengths converge the light more strongly (i.e. at a sharper angle) to focus the subject being imaged. Longer focal lengths, in comparison, converge the light less strongly (i.e. at a shallower angle) in order to focus the image.

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Field of view defines the maximum area of a sample that a camera can image, determined by the focal length of the lens and the sensor size.

Field of view (FOV) is the maximum area of a sample that a camera can image. It is related to two things, the focal length of the lens and the sensor size. Figure 1 shows a comparison between the field of view and the size of the sensor. Assuming that the focal length of the lens is the same, the larger the sensor the larger the field of view.

This allows the FOV dimensions (i.e. vertical and horizontal distances) to be measured without knowing lens focal length or sensor size. The image created, including the target, is then displayed on a monitor, with the target image being a subset of the full image display. This allows the FOV to be approximated as:

In terms of Raman thermometry, the local temperature of the sample under the focused laser spot can be easily determined by fitting the spectral position and line width of the observed Raman mode. The temperature increase causes thermal expansion of a sample, resulting in a redshift of the Raman peak’s position and broadening of the linewidth of the Raman peak.

When light interacts with matter, almost all of the scattering is an elastic process (Rayleigh scattering) with no energy change. However, a very small percentage of scattering is an inelastic process, leading to scattered light with different energy from the incident light (Figure 2.(a)). This inelastic scattering of light was predicted theoretically by Adolf Smekal in 1923 and first observed experimentally by Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (Figure 2.(b)) in 1928, and it is called Raman scattering (Raman effect).

This means that the distance of the focal length is determined by how strongly the light is converged by the lens in order to focus the subject being imaged. This, in turn, influences the angle from the horizonal of light that can be captured by the lens. This is known as the angular field of view (AFOV) and is required to determine the overall FOV. The AFOV is the angle between any light captured at the horizonal, and any light captured at the edge (as shown in Figure 2). If you have a fixed sensor size, altering the focal length will alter the AFOV and therefore the overall FOV. A shorter focal length provides a larger AFOV view, and therefore a larger FOV. The same is true but vice versa for longer focal lengths, as indicated in Figure 2.

Jul 29, 2024 — How do I determine the camera field of view? · Calculate the angle of view for each side of the sensor sᵢ with the formula: aovᵢ = 2 × arctan( ...

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