Figure 14: images of drosophila tissues acquired with the microscope described on Figure 13 at 2 different depths ( 22µm, 42µm) without (left) and with (right) adaptive optics.

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The wavefront from a distant object under observation, typically a star, is distorted by atmospheric turbulences. A part of the beam is directed to a wavefront sensor which measures the wavefront error of the incoming wave. The control system processes this measurement and sends a command to the deformable mirror to change its shape and compensate the distortion. The resulting output beam is now corrected and sent to the science camera for imaging.

Adaptive Optics brought major improvements to UHIL facilities, allowing the lasers to deliver quasi theoretical maximum intensity on target.

In the early 90s, several astronomical agencies such as the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), the European Southern Observatory (ESO), and Office National d’Etudes et Recherches Aerospatiales (ONERA) in France started their own developments aiming at astronomy applications.

CMOS Cameraprice

Prabu is the Chief Technology Officer and Head of Camera Products at e-con Systems, and comes with a rich experience of more than 15 years in the embedded vision space. He brings to the table a deep knowledge in USB cameras, embedded vision cameras, vision algorithms and FPGAs. He has built 50+ camera solutions spanning various domains such as medical, industrial, agriculture, retail, biometrics, and more. He also comes with expertise in device driver development and BSP development. Currently, Prabu’s focus is to build smart camera solutions that power new age AI based applications.

CMOS cameras have many potential business use cases due to their high-quality image capture capabilities, low power consumption, and versatility. Here are a few examples:

CMOSvs CCD

Deformable mirrors are mirrors with electronically controlled surface shapes. They are commonly used to compensate aberrations. They can be based on piezoelectric transducers, mechanical or electromagnetic actuators. Spatial Light Modulators with phase modulation are high resolution arrays that can control the phase of the optical wavefront, pixel by pixel. Although they present lower spectral bandwidth and smaller damage threshold, they have much higher resolution than deformable mirrors and can especially be used for beam shaping applications. For a list and description of deformable mirrors, please click here.

The basic operation of a CMOS camera is as follows: when light enters the camera lens, it is focused onto the CMOS sensor, which converts the light into an electrical charge. Each pixel on the sensor corresponds to a specific point in the image, and the electrical charge at each pixel is read out and converted into a digital signal. The camera’s image processor processes this digital signal to create a final image.

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One example of successful implementation of adaptive optics for retinal imaging was performed by the company Imagine Eyes. Figure 16 below shows  a real time image of a live retina with adaptive optics ON and OFF. The system drastically improves the resolution and provides instant visualization of  cellular details (rods and the cones) of the retina.

This page is an overview of adaptive optics and its applications from high intensity lasers to microscopy and retinal imaging. Learn how deformable mirrors are used to compensate for wavefront errors and help imaging systems go from blur to clarity.

Adaptive Optics is commonly used in several microscopy techniques such as non linear two photon microscopy, confocal microscopy, light sheet microscopy and superresolution microscopy (PALM/STORM). One of the biggest challenges in applying adaptive optics to microscopy is measuring the disturbed wavefront at the desired location. For example if the goal is to get a perfect beam focusing at a certain depth of the sample, how could we measure the wavefront inside the sample? Scientists have come up with different tricks to perform this measurement, in some cases, guide stars are used or generated  inside the sample to run a closed loop. In other cases, open loop algorithms were implemented. This sections provides examples of different AO implementation schemes.

Wavefront sensors provide the 3D map of the optical wavefront or phase front with speeds up to several KHz. They quantify atmospheric disturbance, or optical aberrations with a high precision of λ/100 RMS. Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors are by far the most used sensors for adaptive optics, because they are easy-to-use, accurate, fast and robust. Other types of sensors can also be used depending on the application. For a list and description of wavefront sensors, please click here.

The idea behind adaptive optics is to compensate for these distortions and recover the system resolution. Originating from astronomy, the idea of adaptive optics was first introduced by the American astronomer Horace W. Babbock as early as 1953 for the correction of atmospheric turbulences.

Adaptive optics (AO) systems consist of measuring and compensating distortions in the incoming wavefront in order to recover signal or resolution. The wavefront measurement is typically performed with a wavefront sensor such as a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor, whereas the compensation is carried out by a deformable mirror. A control system or software will then apply a closed loop algorithm and the ensemble will provide a corrected output wavefront which can then be processed by detectors or cameras. Adaptive optics systems have demonstrated significant resolution improvement. With the recent progress in camera technologies,  wavefront sensors, deformable mirrors and real time computers, AO systems have become very popular and are now used in many fields such as high-power lasers, free space optical telecommunications, micro and nano-manufacturing, fluorescence microscopy, optical coherence tomography and retinal imaging, just to name a few.

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The promising results obtained at the NIF triggered a flood of investments into private companies promising to deliver fusion power in the 2030s and the use of adaptive optics for high energy lasers is therefore expected to grow.

The first AO system based on a wavefront sensor, wavefront reconstructor and deformable mirror comparable to those used today was developed in the early 70s within the scope of a DARPA agency grant aiming at imaging and tracking satellites. The RTAC (Real Time Atmospheric Compensator) developed in association with the company ITEK, MA was first demonstrated in 1974 [Hardy and al.] and the first implementation of an AO system (CIS – Compensated Imaging system) was made on a 1.6 m telescope located on Mt Haleakala on Maui Island. This system was associating a piezoelectric DM with 168 actuators, separate Tip-Tilt Correction and an intensified shearing interferometer as a wavefront sensor, all together able to perform closed loop correction up to 1000Hz.

In this article, you’ll be able to get more details on how CMOS cameras work, their use cases, as well as five imaging features that make them one of the most popular solutions in the market.

A CMOS camera is a digital camera that uses a Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor to capture and process images. Unlike traditional CCD (charge-coupled device) sensors, which use a complex manufacturing process to create a single large sensor, CMOS sensors can be manufactured using standard semiconductor manufacturing techniques, resulting in a smaller and less expensive sensor. Also, unlike older CCD cameras, CMOS cameras use less power and have faster readout speeds, making them popular in various applications.

CMOS cameras have several imaging features that highlight their advantages over other types of cameras. These features include high resolution, low noise, high dynamic range, fast readout speed, and low power consumption.

Figure 15: Retinal Imaging using Rtx1 from Imagine Eyes to improve the resolution: see the difference when the AO is ON.

CMOS sensors can capture images with high sensitivity, which means they can capture images in low-light conditions without sacrificing image quality. First, the individual pixels on a CMOS sensor can be made larger, allowing for more light to be captured. Additionally, the use of backside illumination (BSI) can increase the efficiency of light capture by placing the photodiodes on the backside of the sensor instead of the front.

Cmos on cameraiphone

-In fluorescence microscopy, depth dependent index changes of biological tissue induces aberrations that makes the imaging or fluorescence excitation inefficient and distorted at a certain depth.

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The Adaptive Optics control software is in charge of controlling all the components of the AO loop, receiving signals from the wavefront sensor and computing the right commands to send to the deformable mirror. In a lot of cases, a closed loop approach is chosen to compensate for time dependent aberrations (such as atmospheric turbulences). However, when wavefront sensing becomes very challenging, an open loop approach could also be chosen, for example in microscopy.

Below are the images of drosophila tissues acquired with that same microscope at three different depth (2µm, 22µm, 42µm) without (left) and with (right) adaptive optics (Court. of Wei Zheng, Yicong Wu, Peter Winter & Hari Shroff, NIH, 2017 ).

CMOS sensors are capable of achieving high dynamic range by using a technique called ‘multiple exposure’. It involves capturing multiple images of the same scene at different exposure levels and combining them to create a single image with a wider dynamic range. High dynamic range in CMOS cameras is particularly important for outdoor applications where there can be a wide range of light intensity within a single scene. By capturing a wider dynamic range, CMOS cameras can produce images with more detail and better color accuracy.

Unlike in astronomy, the speed of wavefront correction in UHIL is not critical and the key factors are rather the optical quality of the deformable mirror, the performance of the wavefront sensor and the ability to optimize the final spot. Figure 9 shows a focal spot before and after adaptive 0ptics correction obtained at the Laboratoire Irène Joliot-Curie, Université Paris-Saclay in Orsay, France. The adaptive optics system used was composed of an ILAO-Star deformable mirror, a HASO wavefront sensor and the Wavetune software from Imagine Optic.

However, over the past two decades, CMOS cameras have steadily improved performance, largely thanks to advances in CMOS technology and manufacturing processes. Today, CMOS cameras are used in various applications, including high-end professional photography, scientific research, medical imaging, and industrial inspection.

CMOSfull form

Stay tuned for regular updates as we keep pace with the ever-evolving landscape of Adaptive Optics technology. This page is dedicated to serving as a comprehensive resource for applications in adaptive optics, ensuring you stay informed of advancements. Check back frequently for the latest updates and insights.

CMOS sensors have lower noise levels than other types of sensors, such as CCD sensors, due to how they are designed. Each pixel on a CMOS sensor has its own amplifier, which amplifies the signal from the photodiode. This results in a higher signal-to-noise ratio, reducing the amount of noise in the image. Hence, by producing images with less visual distortion and graininess, CMOS cameras can improve the accuracy and reliability of many imaging tasks.

-In high intensity or high energy lasers, the high power of the beam passing through optics causes time and space dependent index refraction changes that highly distorts the focal spot.

In this second example of AO implementation in a multiphoton set up, the deformable mirror is on the excitation and emission path. The wavefront measurement is carried out on “descanned” guide star. A flip mirror directs the light onto a wavefront sensor or the imaging camera (Court. of Wei Zheng, Yicong Wu, Peter Winter & Hari Shroff, NIH, 2017).

Multiphoton microscopy is an alternative to laser-scanning confocal microscopy. It uses the same principle of scanning the excitation beam over the sample, but differs to the extent that it is using a multiphoton excitation beam to create the fluorescence signal. This technique is broadly used for in-vivo imaging or deep imaging because it minimizes background fluorescence signal, overcomes to some extent scattering of sample tissues and is less photo-toxic than conventional confocal techniques. However, as the imaging goes deeper in the tissue, optical aberrations quickly become significant, which destroys the quality of the focal spot and reduces the 2P signal generated drastically. Adaptive optics was proven to be a good solution to recover performance when imaging deep, with better, tighter focus, improved axial sectioning, resolution and 2P signal emitted with typical x2 to x5 gains obtained. Perhaps the most well known microscope with adaptive optics is the one developed by Betzig and Wang at Janelia farms published in 2014 (click here to access it). Two subsequent advantages of adaptive optics and the signal gain are: 1) the ability to reach much deeper layers of the sample and 2) to decrease the intensity of the excitation laser, therefore reducing photo-toxicity. Below are two examples of adaptive optics applications to 2P imaging that have been published. In the example 1 below, AO is implemented on the excitation path of the multiphoton microscope. An iterative algorithm was used to optimize the DM shape to get the most signal.

Each beamline of the NIF includes an adaptive optics system, with the deformable mirrors being located at the end of the main amplifier, correcting residual thermal distortions, imperfect optical materials and amplifier distortions due to flash lamp heating. This wavefront correction allows to achieve smaller spot size and produce higher power density on the target, therefore facilitating the fusion process.

The number of facilities employing ultra high intensity lasers have been on the rise since the late 90s. Those sources typically use mode locked oscillators that are amplified to produce femtosecond type pulses with peak power varying between 10s of TW to several PW on target. This paves the way for experimental production of extreme electromagnetic conditions required for relativistic physics. Not only are those sources more compact and cheaper to build and assemble than linear accelerators and synchrotrons, they are also much easier to operate and maintain.

CMOSsensor

Figure 7 below shows the wavefront correction of the NIF baseline design. The aberrated wavefront of the uncorrected beam (a) is compensated by DM shape (b). The residual (c) shows a 6-fold decrease of the WFE amplitude and 18x increase of the strehl ratio.

CMOS sensors are capable of capturing images at very high frame rates, making them ideal for applications where fast-moving objects need to be captured with high temporal resolution. Some CMOS cameras are also capable of high-speed data transfer, allowing for real-time analysis of the images as they are being captured. This feature is particularly useful in scientific and industrial applications, where analyzing the images in real-time may be necessary to monitor and control a process.

-In astronomy, (see fig 1 below) because of atmospheric turbulences, a perfectly designed telescope, (i.e. with minimal aberrations) will still generate blurry images.

In this application note, among the many examples of adaptive optics implementation, we choose to describe only the following few examples:

-In retinal imaging: the patient eye itself creates aberrations which greatly limits the final resolution of the retina image acquired.

Figure 12 is an image of a drosophila larva acquired with this microscope (Court. of Drs. Beaurepaire, Débarre & Olivier, Ecole Polytechnique, France, 2012). We can see a 3x improvement of the SNR thanks to AO.

A steady increase in performance, functionality, and miniaturization has characterized the evolution of CMOS cameras. The first CMOS cameras were introduced in the early 1990s and were primarily used in low-end consumer electronics such as webcams and security cameras. These early CMOS cameras had limited resolution and image quality compared to CCD cameras, which were the dominant technology at the time.

2024630 — The base of the microscope provides stability and support for the entire microscope, ensuring that it remains steady during observation.

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By continuously measuring and correcting wavefront errors in a loop, the adaptive optics system constantly produces much sharper and clearer images than would normally be possible to acquire.

CMOSimage sensor

Nuclear fusion is expected to become one of the next big technological breakthroughs in the coming decades. The utilization of high energy lasers for nuclear fusion is well on its way, and will hopefully allow us, one day, to produce low cost “clean energy” in the near future.

Ophthalmology has immensely benefited from the use of adaptive optics. Human eyes are very imperfect optical elements: they present irregularities which introduce aberrations and distort light waves. As a consequence, retinal examinations have always been limited to a rather low level of details and early signs of diseases occurring at the level of cells, had remained invisible to eye doctors.

CMOS sensors can produce high-resolution images, allowing for more detailed images with greater clarity. As technology has advanced, CMOS sensors have achieved higher resolutions, up to several hundred megapixels in some cases.

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DE weapons have been tested in the field, in air, on land and in the sea. Although those developments and applications are understandably classified, it is possible to find some literature describing the motivations and models. For example: “Adaptive Optics for Directed Energy: Fundamentals and Methodology” (here).

cmossensor vs full-frame

Directed-energy (DE) weapons have been in development for the past three decades. On one hand, high energy lasers (HELs) offer many advantages over conventional weapons, including the delivery of energy at light speed, a low cost per shot, unlimited magazines, and stealth. On the other hand, the performance of DE weapons is dependent on atmospheric conditions. This is why adaptive optics have a key role in those developments in order to optimize the irradiance on target, by compensating the aberrations coming from the laser (thermal effects), the optical train (beam transportation optics) and of course from the turbulence along the emitter to target optical path.

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CMOSimage sensor working principle

Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) is a process that uses lasers to heat a small micron size target in order to produce energy through the fusion process. This approach was validated in the USA with the OMEGA and NOVA lasers in the late 70s and 80s but the first real milestone was achieved on December 5, 2022 at the NIF facility at the Lawrence Livermore laboratory where 192 beamlines combined delivered 2.05MJ of UV (351nm), over a few ns, which resulted in producing 3.15 MJ of energy – more energy than the target had received.

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For example, a classical imaging system such as an objective lens, is typically considered “high performing” if the wavefront error (wfe) introduced by its lenses is minimal (typically wfe < Lambda/20 rms). It is also qualified as “diffraction limited,” meaning the resulting point spread function is close to the perfect Airy function. Optical designers from various industries make great efforts to calculate combinations of lenses or optics to reduce this wfe. For imaging lenses or optical components, the wavefront error is fixed and comes from the system itself, from its design on one hand, and errors of fabrication on the other hand. In other cases, wavefront distortion can come from other sources along the path, with time or space dependency. For example:

We also offer a range of customization options for its CMOS cameras. Our experienced team of engineers can work with clients to develop customized camera solutions that meet their specific imaging requirements. This can include custom sensor selection, lens selection, integration with hardware and software, etc.

Historically, bimorph and monomorph deformable mirrors, developed for directed energy and astronomy, were the only large deformable mirrors available until Imagine Optic introduced its new line of ILAO mechanical deformable mirrors. ILAO and ILAO Star are specific DMs developed for UHIL applications. They meet all critical requirements for UHIL: large aperture, optical quality (1o nm rms active flat), extreme stability (no drift) and quasi perfect linearity. Figure 10 shows a 400 mm diameter ILAO STAR – custom designed for petawatt femtosecond laser manufactured by Imagine Optic.

e-con Systems’ CMOS camera modules are perfectly suited for industrial, retail, agricultural, and medical environments. Our camera modules can be easily integrated with a wide variety of embedded platforms – including NVIDIA Jetson. So, they are ideal for imaging applications like autonomous mobile robots, point-of-care diagnostic devices, fundus cameras, autonomous shopping systems, smart traffic devices, auto farming devices, etc.

Of course, if you are looking to integrate CMOS cameras into your embedded vision products, please write to camerasolutions@e-consystems.com. You can also visit our Camera Selector to get a full view of our camera portfolio.