Our polarization-maintaining fiber collimator has a high extinction ratio, low insertion and high return loss. The unique processing and high-quality AR coating also enable this collimator to handle high optical powers.

His response to the coronavirus has been one more elaboration of a by now well-rehearsed strategy of governing through polarizing attacks on opponents and treating every major policy challenge almost solely in terms of how it affects his reelection chances. Eschewing any unifying language about the suffering that COVID-19 has inflicted on hundreds of thousands of Americans, Trump has built his coronavirus narrative around his favored partisan targets. He has attacked the media, which he blames for exaggerating the crisis to harm his reelection campaign; foreigners (in particular China); scientific expertise, including that of “deep state” professionals within his own administration; and multilateral institutions, such as the World Health Organization. [13]

Unless otherwise noted on individual pages, all content is... Copyright © 2003-2022 The Beyond Intractability Project c/o the Conflict Information Consortium All rights reserved. Content may not be reproduced without prior written permission.

Jun 10, 2022 — Depending on the manufacturer, each anti-reflective lens will reflect a certain color. Most tend to be green or purple. Spectacle lenses with a ...

Mar 7, 2023 — Proceed to then pour in the Resin, using the general rule of thumb of two parts epoxy to one-part hardener. That said, this is not always the ...

The Hyper-Polarization Challenge to the Conflict Resolution Field We invite you to participate in an online exploration of what those with conflict and peacebuilding expertise can do to help defend liberal democracies and encourage them live up to their ideals.

polarization极化

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The current implications for this essay are quite obvious, particularly if one has been reading the news since Donald Trump was elected president of the United States. His election was a reflection of the already deep polarization of American politics, and his demeanor, behavior and policies have significantly deepened that polarization since he took office. Consider, for example, the article by Thomas Carothers, reporting on Trump's response to the Coronavirus[13]:

[2] James E. Dougherty and Robert L. Phaltzgraff, Contending Theorys of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, 5th edition. (Longman Publishers, 2001), 297.

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Polarization is so much a part of the process of escalation that it is difficult to ascertain if one is the cause of the other. Ikle writes that as soon as two adversaries have initiated violence, their stakes and expectations change, making it impossible to return to a peacetime relationship without first repairing the damage.[10] Escalation has multiple dimensions; it could be a shift or change in the pattern of the violence, but Ikle notes that it also usually prolongs the war by default.

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A method and system for producing a collimated beam of light having a substantially uniform flux density across the entire beam includes a light source ...

[13] Thomas Carothers "The United States: Presidential Leadership, Polarization, and the Coronavirus." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. April 28, 2020. https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/04/28/united-states-presidential-leadership-polarization-and-coronavirus-pub-81643

The key to doing any of that, however, is to somehow establish personal relationships between adversaries, to get people to actually sit down and listen to one and other.  This is extremely difficult to do in a time when we aren't even supposed to sit down face to face with our own family members (because of COVID), but at the same time, we are all on ZOOM conversations now more than ever.  So might this be a time to facilitate more zoom conversations across political divides?

This certainly sounds like the relationship between the two major political parties in the United States today! I was particularly struck by the last paragraph in the original essay in the "Causes of Polarization" section:

While some scholars of intergroup conflict regard polarization and escalation as inevitable in interethnic relationships, others see it as the result of social mobilization or manipulation by political elites. Leadership whose legitimacy is threatened, either by the leaders' own actions or by an immediate crisis, can use identity as a 'rallying cry' by calling for mobilization and collective action along nationalistic or ethnic lines.[8] In order to foster homogeneity and build support for their cause, such leaders may portray the adversary as a grave threat to the vital interests and identity of "their people."[9] This furthers both polarization and escalation simultaneously.

As this excerpt suggests, although Trump's response to COVID-19 worsened polarization, it was already bad to start with.  If you read through the original text of this essay, you'll see many familiar descriptions:

Disclaimer: All opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of Beyond Intractability or the Conflict Information Consortium.

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The study of polarization first came to be identified with those realist writers who wrote about the structure of the international system, the impact of military alliances on war and peace, and the balance of power. Writers such as Vasquez, Choucri North, Wallace and Bueno de Mesquita wrote about the effect of polarization on the incidence, severity, and magnitude of great wars and arms races.[2] Polarization also became the main element in the study of the security dilemma, a situation in which parties feel threatened by an "enemy," so they increase their arms, which causes the other side to feel threatened, therefore increasing their own arms. The dilemma is that attempts to bring more security actually bring less. Increased pre-emptive militarization combines with fear, misperceptions, and negative stereotypes to encourage polarization. While polarization can occur in any type of conflict, it has it most damaging effects in large-scale inter-group, public policy, and international conflicts.

[1] Dean Pruitt and Paul Olczak, "Beyond Hope: Approaches to Resolving Seemingly Intractable Conflict," 59-92, in Conflict, Cooperation, and Justice: Essays Inspired by the Work of Morton Deutsch, eds. Barbara Bunker and Jeffrey Rubin, et al. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, Inc., 1995), 81.

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Radical positions are further reinforced by group homogeneity and cohesiveness. Kriesberg notes that adversaries with little internal diversity are more prone to escalation.[5] They are more prone to polarization as well. This is because homogeneity makes it less likely that a group will consider alternatives to the severe tactics being advocated or employed by extremists. As parties assume more radical positions, group members tend to reinforce each other's negative stereotypes and enemy images.[6] Any moderate positions go unheard or their proponents ostracized -- or worse -- as they are seen as traitors to the cause. As this process continues, parties are often further segregated, and their relationship with outsiders becomes increasingly hostile and competitive.[7]

Parties engaged in conflict typically focus on their differences, which can result in pushing the parties toward polar opposite positions. Strategies that encourage parties to consider their common interests can help to mitigate such effects. Planning and pursuing joint projects, for example, can help parties to focus on commonalities rather than contentious issues. Because fear and distrust often play a central in producing polarization, trust building strategies are also beneficial. The establishment of personal relationships between adversaries can help to improve their communication, increase their level of mutual understanding, and make them less likely to view each other as evil enemies. Better understanding of a party's true motives can help to reduce anger and hostility and eliminate actions that unwittingly threaten or annoy one's opponent.[11]

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by PR Rao · 1965 · Cited by 3 — (2) for a 60° prism angle for all the individual glasses. It is interesting to note that these values for each type of glass, when interpolated on n vs λ curves ...

20221219 — What is electric polarisation? ... Polarisation is the separation of the elements of a system into two groups of opposing natures. This is what we ...

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The housing of the lens easily connects to fiber-optic cables either with FC/PC or with SMA connectors and enables Z-axis alignment.

If possible, third-party mediators or consultants should help parties to better understand the dynamics of their conflict and to address their negative perceptions and attitudes. This sort of transformative mediation can enhance trust and help parties to refrain from taking hostile actions.[12] If parties can move toward productive negotiation, they have taken the first step towards reconciliation.

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Conversely, escalation seems to increase polarization. Formerly neutral parties are pulled to one side or the other and fewer community members can retain their moderate positions. In part, this is because those involved in the conflict demand that neutral non-participants decide whether they are "with us or against us."[4] Those who would normally urge moderation and attempt to mediate the conflict are recruited by participants in the controversy, and forced to take sides. It is difficult for community members to remain neutral when people are fighting, damaging each other's property, and injuring each other. In such situations, there is a tendency to cast blame and to side with one party or the other.

This is, obviously, also a crisis that calls out for the use of mass communication technologies to help larger numbers of people to start more quickly spanning the divide. Journalists, writers, and anyone else who has an audience that is interested in their views on our hyper-polarized politics can try to focus their reporting on helping defuse the situation, rather than doing things that further drive polarization.  And, we can all spend less time paying attention to materials that paint the opposing side in the most unflattering way possible and seek out materials that help us really understand what we are all doing to intensify the polarization spiral and what we might be able to do now, and in the future, to change things.

Most of the original article was written about conflicts between nations, not within nations, which became more apparent in the section on addressing polarization, where the discussion largely assumed a violent confrontation between contenders.  But several of the observations Maiese and Norlen made still apply to the U.S. case:

[9] Louis Kriesberg, Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution. (Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, Inc., 1998), 159. New version of this book (2012)  .

polarization中文

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This post is also part of the Constructive Conflict MOOS Seminar's exploration of the tough challenges posed by the Constructive Conflict Initiative.

Politicalpolarization

Circularpolarization

A free, open, online seminar exploring new approaches for addressing difficult and intractable conflicts. Major topic areas include:

Coupling of light into single mode fibres can be made simple with the use of a PowerPhotonic fiber coupling micro lens array. We design and manufacture standard and custom optics in 1D and 2D arrays. All products are made in high grade fused silica and capable of both high efficiency and high power handling and our unique process minimises channel cross talk due to extremely low scatter. Lenses can spheric, aspheric or freeform due to our unique manufacturing process.

The current implications for this essay are quite obvious, particularly if one has been reading the news since Donald Trump was elected president of the United States. His election was a reflection of the already deep polarization of American politics, and his demeanor, behavior and policies have significantly deepened that polarization since he took office. Consider, for example, the article by Thomas Carothers, reporting on Trump's response to the Coronavirus:

Our polarization-maintaining fiber collimator has a high extinction ratio, low insertion and high return loss. The unique processing and high-quality AR coating also enable this collimator to handle high optical powers.

by MH Griessmann · 2023 · Cited by 2 — The beam or mode quality M2, also known as the beam propagation factor, is defined in terms of the beam waist w0 and angular width Δθ. The ...

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Circularly polarized light

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Schäfter+Kirchhoff offers a wide range of fiber collimators that can be used for collimating or in reverse as an incoupler. This includes the series 60FC collimators or series 60FC-SF collimators with super fine-focussing mechanism. For large beam diameters the series 60FC-T collimators can be used with integrated TILT mechanism. Special collimators 60FC-Q with integrated quarter-wave plate or made from amagnetic titanium are also available.

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Ellipticalpolarization

Contact Beyond Intractability    Privacy Policy The Beyond Intractability Knowledge Base Project  Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess, Co-Directors and Editors  c/o Conflict Information Consortium Mailing Address: Beyond Intractability, #1188, 1601 29th St. Suite 1292, Boulder CO 80301, USA Contact Form

The coronavirus arrived in the United States at an apex of political polarization: the final phase of the impeachment process against President Donald Trump, which capped years of growing partisan acrimony between Democratic and Republican politicians, as well as deepening divisions in the larger society. Some observers wondered if a national public health emergency might jolt the two clashing camps into setting party politics aside and tackling the challenge together—echoing perhaps the experience of World War II, which helped depolarize U.S. politics for decades afterward.

[8] Donald Rothchild and Chandra Lekha Sriram, "Third Party Incentives and the Phases of Conflict Prevention," in From Promise to Practice: Strengthening UN Capacities for the Prevention of Violent Conflict, eds. Chandra Lekha Sriram and Karin Wermester. ( Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2003).

Electricpolarization

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61 suppliers for fiber collimators are listed in the RP Photonics Buyer's Guide, out of which 8 present their product descriptions. Both manufacturers and distributors can be registered.

There are beam collimators specifically optimized for use with optical fibers. Some can be attached to bare fiber ends, while others can be used with fiber connectors. Fiber collimators are essential in coupling light efficiently between fibers and free space in various optical systems.

Edmund Optics offers fiber-optic collimators for FC/PC, FC/APC and SMA connectors and different wavelength ranges around 350 nm to 1600 nm.

As conflict escalates, the emergence of enemy images and stereotypes damages the relationship between adversaries. Important lines of communication and interaction that are normal to peaceful relationships are cut off, and trust diminishes. As parties begin to attribute their grievances to the other side, they often reduce the number of non-conflictual relations and interactions that they have with that party. Adversaries tend to become increasingly isolated from each other, and any inter-group communication is channeled through more antagonistic lenses. Because parties have fewer ties to individuals from the other group, they may feel freer to employ more severe actions against that group.[3] Group isolation and polarization is further aggravated by the tendency of partisans to try to win bystanders to their side, forcing people to take sides. As more people are drawn into the conflict, that conflict intensifies.

Use the following to cite this article: Maiese, Michelle, Tova Norlen, and Heidi Burgess "Polarization." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: October 2003 .

Edmund Optics offers fiber-optic collimators for FC/PC, FC/APC and SMA connectors and different wavelength ranges around 350 nm to 1600 nm.

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[4] Jeffrey Rubin, Dean Pruitt, and Sung Hee Kim, Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement, 2nd edition. (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994), 96. New edition .

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Schäfter+Kirchhoff offers a wide range of fiber collimators that can be used for collimating or in reverse as an incoupler. This includes the series 60FC collimators or series 60FC-SF collimators with super fine-focussing mechanism. For large beam diameters the series 60FC-T collimators can be used with integrated TILT mechanism. Special collimators 60FC-Q with integrated quarter-wave plate or made from amagnetic titanium are also available.

An look at to the fundamental building blocks of the peace and conflict field covering both “tractable” and intractable conflict.

Polarization

Polarization is the process that causes neutral parties to take sides in a conflict. It also causes individuals on either side of the conflict to take increasingly extreme positions that are more and more opposed to each other. As parties move toward these opposite "poles," they define themselves in terms of their opposition to a common enemy. Trust and respect diminish, and "distorted perceptions and simplified stereotypes emerge."[1] Parties assume more rigid positions and may refuse to negotiate.

While some scholars of intergroup conflict regard polarization and escalation as inevitable in interethnic relationships, others see it as the result of social mobilization or manipulation by political elites. Leadership whose legitimacy is threatened, either by the leaders' own actions or by an immediate crisis, can use identity as a 'rallying cry' by calling for mobilization and collective action along nationalistic or ethnic lines.[8] In order to foster homogeneity and build support for their cause, such leaders may portray the adversary as a grave threat to the vital interests and identity of "their people."[9] This furthers both polarization and escalation simultaneously.

Our inability to constructively handle intractable conflict is the most serious, and the most neglected, problem facing humanity. Solving today's tough problems depends upon finding better ways of dealing with these conflicts.  More...

O/E Land's fiber collimators and focusers are available as fixed or adjustable versions, in fiber-pigtailed or receptacle form, also with customized designs.

Polarization is caused by a number of related psychological, sociological, and political processes. It is closely tied up with escalation in a bi-directional relationship. In other words, escalation causes polarization and vice versa.

CSRayzer provides different kinds of fiber collimators, which can be customized for high power, focusing distance, beam spot diameter, etc. Fixed focus collimators are also available.