IR spectrometer makes use of the vibrational transitions of an organic molecule with IR light to identify materials in the IR spectra.

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Light sources commonly found in a spectrometer are made of tungsten halogen, deuterium, xenon arcs, LED, mercury argon, zinc or lasers.

Most spectrometer systems interface with the computer via USB, RS-232, or Ethernet. With technological advances, newer systems are able to transfer data wirelessly using Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

Select a function below, then use the sliders below to select a point.  The plot will display the function and a portion of the tangent plane at the selected point. Function: fx,y=x^2 + y^210*sin(x/5)*cos(y/10)x*y1/((x-1)^2+(y+3)^2+50)sin((x+y)/8)x^2-y^2x*exp(-(x/7)^2-(y/5)^2)

A monochromator uses a phenomenon of optical dispersion in a prism or diffraction from diffraction gratings to select a particular wavelength of light. In traditional spectrometers, prisms were used to disperse light.

A UV spectrometer typically uses deuterium arc, xenon arc, or tungsten halogen lamps. The type of grating used is usually holographic grating and the detector employed is usually a PMT, photodiode, photodiode array, or CCD. The detectors usually come with a pixel size of 14μm by 200μm.

This technique is based on the theory of Raman scattering. The scattering effect is the inelastic scattering of photons by matter, which means that there is a change in direction of light and, energy is lost by the photons after interacting with the sample.

As mentioned in UV spectroscopy, electrons in a sample become excited when it absorbs light and moves from the ground state to a higher electronic state which consists of various vibrational states.

Fourier-transform IR (FTIR) spectrometer, which collects data over a wide range, utilizes Fourier transform to convert raw data into a spectrum.

∂∂ xfx,y tells us the slope of tangents in the x direction, and ∂∂ yfx,y tells us the slope of tangents in the y direction.  If we combine these, we can determine a three-dimensional tangential direction at a given point.  This leads to the creation of a tangent plane.

The Olympus FluoView FV1000MPE is a multi-photon laser scanning microscope that allows fluorescence imaging deep within specimens.

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The most common light source used in absorption spectrometry is a hollow cathode lamp and a PMT is used as the detector. This is often used in remote sensing, astronomy and atomic and molecular physics.

The beam becomes divergent after passing through the slit and by reflecting the divergent beam on a collimating mirror, the beam becomes collimated. Collimated rays are then directed towards a diffraction grating. The grating acts as a dispersive element and splits the light into its constituent wavelengths.

Absorption spectroscopy is used to determine compounds present in a sample and to measure its concentration of it. UV, VIS and IR spectroscopy mentioned above are examples of absorption spectroscopy.

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One example is a UV spectrometer that utilizes a spectral range of 200 – 400nm, installed with an entrance slit of width 200μm, together with a holographic grating with a groove size of 2400g/mm, and with a CCD detector of 2000 pixels, can detect impurities in organic molecules – such as benzene, that is a common impurity found in cyclohexane and its presence can be easily detected by its absorption with a peak at 255nm in the spectrum.

The intramolecular magnetic field surrounding the atom in a molecule changes with the resonance frequency, therefore revealing the molecular structure of the sample.

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A ruled grating is produced by physically etching grooves onto a reflective surface using a diamond-form tool on a ruling machine while a holographic grating is produced by a process known as interference lithography, which constructs an interference pattern using two UV beams.

We are the distributor of StellarNet spectrometers, offering optical spectrometers for measurements in UV, VIS and NIR, from wavelengths of 190 – 2300nm. StellarNet spectrometers are designed to be portable, and compact with no moving parts.

There is a wide variety of detectors being used in different spectrometers and some commonly used detectors are the photomultiplier tube (PMT), photodiode, photodiode array, charge-coupled device (CCD), bolometer and multi-channel analyzer (MCA).

Near, mid and far-IR use tungsten-halogen lamps, globar and mercury lamps, respectively. The type of grating installed is usually ruled grating. NIR spectrometers typically use InGaAs photodiodes with a pixel size of 25μm by 500μm while MIR spectrometers use pyroelectric detectors with a pixel size of 48.5μm by 48.5μm and FIR spectrometers use a-Si or VOx bolometers of 75μm by 75μm pixel size.

There are several variations of spectrometers around and some of the most common ones present are nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometer, mass spectrometer, and optical spectrometer.

It utilizes the same type of diffraction grating and detector as a UV spectrometer. The VIS spectrometer is also mainly used in the same industries and applications as the UV spectrometer.

Light from the source enters the entrance slit and the size of the slit determines the amount of light that can be measured by the instrument. The slit size also affects the optical resolution of the spectrometer, where the smaller the slit size, the better the resolution.

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The sample absorbs energy from the source and the intensity of absorption varies with frequency, this variation then produces the absorption spectrum. This method of spectroscopy is done across the electromagnetic spectrum.

The section above talked about how a spectrometer works. In this section, the components of a spectrometer and the variety of each component will be covered.

The identification of the sample is done by comparing the spectrum produced when the sample absorbs the UV light with the spectrums of known compounds.

This instrument can also determine the concentration of substances in a sample by measuring its transmittance or absorbance intensity.

Once the light hits the diffraction grating, each wavelength is reflected at a different angle. Diffraction grating of different sizes is also used to determine different wavelength ranges.

Optical Spectrometers can be classified in two ways. The first way is by their wavelength while the second way is by their light interaction properties.

This spectroscopy method can be commonly found in medical, biochemical and environmental monitoring industries. Applications include cancer diagnostics in human tissues, to detect impurities or identification and measure concentrations of substances, and to detect various bacteria, viruses and parasites that are causing infection

The sample absorbs the IR radiation and corresponds in energy to these vibrations. This allows the absorption spectra of compounds to be recorded and the spectra are unique to each compound.

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UV spectroscopy uses light in the UV range of wavelength between 200 – 400nm to measure how much light a sample absorbs or reflects and to determine the concentrations of elements in the sample.

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This can usually be found in industries such as pharmaceuticals, environmental safety, food and materials. Applications that utilise IR spectrometer includes protein characterization, space exploration, identification of compounds, nanoscale semiconductor analysis, etc.

Both devices are capable of splitting light into several colors, but a diffraction grating can be made to spread the colors over a bigger angle than a prism. Prisms also have a higher dispersion only in the UV region while diffraction gratings have a high and constant dispersion across the UV, VIS, and IR spectrum.

Instruments that measure fluorescence are known as fluorometers. Fluorometers typically use lasers, LED, xenon arc or mercury vapour lamps as their light source. Photodiodes or PMTs are usually selected as detectors in fluorescence spectroscopy.

Reflectance spectroscopy systems usually use lasers, superluminescent diodes, LEDs, or halogen lamps as their light source and CCDs, photodiodes or MCA as their detector.

Spectrometer is an umbrella term that describes an instrument that separates and measures spectral components of a physical characteristic. They are devices that measure a continuous variable in which the components of the spectrum are separated from their original mix.

Normal vector of aplane

The most common types of mirrors around are usually plane and spherical mirrors. Spherical mirrors can be broken down into two types – concave and convex spherical mirrors. However, in a spectrometer, concave spherical mirrors are usually used.

Light is scattered directly off the sample and passed through a filter to remove the particles from Rayleigh scattering.

Photons from mid-IR onwards are only able to induce vibrational excitations in covalently bonded atoms and are not able to excite electrons as the energies are not large enough.

Fluorescence is measured by fluorescence spectrometers and it measures various characteristics of fluorescence, such as intensity and wavelength distribution of the emission. The emission spectrum then reveals which wavelengths the samples emit.

Main Concept Tangent planes are the three-dimensional equivalent of tangent lines. We can evaluate the derivative of a two-variable function f(x,y) with respect to either variable. ∂∂ xfx,y tells us the slope of tangents in the x direction, and ∂∂ yfx,y tells us the slope of tangents in the y direction.  If we combine these, we can determine a three-dimensional tangential direction at a given point.  This leads to the creation of a tangent plane. Definition Let f__xx,y represent the partial derivative function with respect to x, and let f__yx,y represent the partial derivative function with respect to y. The gradient of a function fx,y, symbolized ∇fx,y, is defined ∇fx,y = f__xx,y,f__yx,y  You can also evaluate the gradient at any particular values x,y = a,b. The tangent plane of fx,y at a point a,b is defined z  = fa,b + f__xa,bx−a + f__ya, by−b Vector Definition The gradient is often interpreted as a vector. Let α  = ab, γ =xy, and  ∇fγ = f__xγf__yγ Then, we can write the formula for the tangent plane as fα + ∇fα⋅γ−α using the dot product.

This instrument is commonly used in industries such as chemistry, physics, pharmaceutical, arts and medical. It helps to identify molecules and examine chemical bonding, characterise and study the structures of materials, discover counterfeit drugs in packages, studying of biominerals, etc.

The beam becomes divergent again after being reflected from the grating, thus it hits a second mirror to focus and direct it towards the detector.

When light passes through matter, most of it continues in its original direction, however, a small portion is scattered in other directions.

People often confuse spectrometers with spectrophotometers. A spectrophotometer is an instrument that measures the transmission and absorption properties of light as a function of the wavelength of a material.

Samples are usually liquids, but gases and solids can also be tested. The samples are usually placed inside a transparent cell, called a cuvette. Test tubes can also be used in place of cuvettes in some equipment.

It is also usually used in applications such as the detection of impurities, the presence or absence of any functional group in a compound, identification of compounds, structural elucidation of organic compounds, etc.

The reflectance spectrometer is used in the medical industry to provide information on tissue concentration and can also be used in industries like environmental science and geology.

Most of the light that gets scattered off is unchanged in energy and this is Rayleigh scattering. Raman scattering is made up of an extremely minute fraction of scattered photons (approximately 1 in 10 million).

The material used to produce the cuvette depends on the spectral range that the spectrometer covers. Fused silica or quartz glass are commonly used as they are transparent through UV to IR regions.

The working principle is similar to the spectrometer, where a monochromator is used to select a wavelength of light to reach the sample. Depending on the sample’s opacity, the light is either reflected or transmitted. The detector then records the intensity of the reflected or transmitted light.

By analysing the vibrational change in the sample, properties such as chemical composition, crystallinity, and molecular interactions can be determined. As mentioned above, Raman scattering is very weak, therefore a highly sensitive spectrometer is needed to examine the light.

Let f__xx,y represent the partial derivative function with respect to x, and let f__yx,y represent the partial derivative function with respect to y.

IR light can be divided into three portions between 700nm to 1mm – near, mid and far infrared, which is in relation to the visible spectrum.

Main Concept Tangent planes are the three-dimensional equivalent of tangent lines. We can evaluate the derivative of a two-variable function f(x,y) with respect to either variable. ∂∂ xfx,y tells us the slope of tangents in the x direction, and ∂∂ yfx,y tells us the slope of tangents in the y direction.  If we combine these, we can determine a three-dimensional tangential direction at a given point.  This leads to the creation of a tangent plane. Definition Let f__xx,y represent the partial derivative function with respect to x, and let f__yx,y represent the partial derivative function with respect to y. The gradient of a function fx,y, symbolized ∇fx,y, is defined ∇fx,y = f__xx,y,f__yx,y  You can also evaluate the gradient at any particular values x,y = a,b. The tangent plane of fx,y at a point a,b is defined z  = fa,b + f__xa,bx−a + f__ya, by−b Vector Definition The gradient is often interpreted as a vector. Let α  = ab, γ =xy, and  ∇fγ = f__xγf__yγ Then, we can write the formula for the tangent plane as fα + ∇fα⋅γ−α using the dot product. Select a function below, then use the sliders below to select a point.  The plot will display the function and a portion of the tangent plane at the selected point. Function: fx,y=x^2 + y^210*sin(x/5)*cos(y/10)x*y1/((x-1)^2+(y+3)^2+50)sin((x+y)/8)x^2-y^2x*exp(-(x/7)^2-(y/5)^2) ∂∂xf   = ∂∂ yf   =   x value of point =    y value of point =   Point on surface =  Tangent plane =  z=

A UV spectrometer is commonly used in industries such as Material Science, Quality Control, Petrochemistry, Food & Agriculture, Life Science, Optical Components, etc.

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A transmission spectrum will have its highest peaks at wavelengths where absorption is weakest as more light passes through the sample.

An optical spectrometer measures the properties of light, usually near the optical region in the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light.

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Many software can be implemented for usage with spectrometers for data acquisition. Most companies producing the instrument would also provide software that is compatible with the spectrometer they produce. For example, StellarNet’s spectrometers come with their software known as SpectraWiz.

The detector captures the light spectra and measures the intensity of light as a function of wavelength. These data are then digitized and plotted onto software as a graph.

A VIS spectrometer works in the same way as the UV spectrometer, except that this utilizes light in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. wavelength of 400nm to 700nm, to identify compounds that do not interact with UV light.

The NMR spectrometer observes and measures the interaction of nuclei spins when the sample is placed in a strong, constant magnetic field. The NMR signal is produced when the nuclei interact with the magnetic field at a frequency that resonates with the frequency of the nuclei.

As the electrons may drop into any of the various vibrational levels in the ground state, the emitted photons will contain different amounts of energy, and thus varying intensities and wavelengths.

Fluorescence spectroscopy is therefore defined as the measurement of the amount of fluorescence from a sample. It usually uses light in the UV or VIS range for the excitation of electrons.

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It typically deals with light in the range from near-ultraviolet to visible light to near-infrared. The spectrophotometer itself contains a spectrometer as well as a light source to better illuminate the sample.

A mass spectrometer measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions and identifies the composition of elements present in a sample. This works by ionizing a sample, which causes some of the molecules to become charged and separate according to their mass-to-charge ratio.

Now that you know what is a spectrometer and its applications, you should know where to buy a reliable one. You can buy reliable spectrometers from Wavelength Opto-Electronic.

However, with the invention of the diffraction grating, it became the most used monochromator in modern spectrometers as it has more advantages over the prism.

The electrons in the sample are excited from the ground state to a higher energy state as the molecules absorb the energy given off by the UV light. The amount of energy the electrons have is proportional to the length of the wavelength they can absorb.

Depending on the spectral range, different light sources are used. LEDs, Tungsten halogen, or deuterium lamps are frequently used. Typical detectors chosen are photodiodes and CCDs. This is often used in pharmaceutical analysis.

Slits come in a variety of sizes, from 5μm to 800μm with a 1mm to 2mm height. The size of the slit depends on the application and the most common slits used are in widths 10, 25, 50, 100, and 200μm.

The remaining light from Raman scattering is then directed to a diffraction grating before heading towards the detector.

This is repeated with the monochromator at different wavelengths for the detector to measure the change in light intensity. The final output would be an absorption spectrum as a function of wavelength.

Holographic gratings tend to have a more uniform groove form and spacing and generate less stray light as they are produced optically.

As its name suggests, absorption spectroscopy measures the absorption of radiation, as a function of wavelength or frequency, of a sample with the source.