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Promising practices for police de-escalation and use-of-force training are highlighted in a 2020 research review. Communication skills and operational skills are the two major types of de-escalation techniques.

Integration of threat assessment training will help your officers assess the immediacy of a threat during even the most dangerous LE-citizen encounters. Being able to differentiate between when to de-escalate and when to use force will encourage your officers to apply de-escalation techniques when able, but not at the risk of their own or others’ safety.

Stoppingon shoulder of highway

On older roads, the shoulder may disappear for short periods, near exits or when going across or under bridges or tunnels where the cost savings were thought to outweigh the safety benefits of the shoulder. Some roads have a narrow shoulder for significant distances. This makes it difficult for large vehicles to pull into the hard shoulder altogether.

Full-width hard shoulders are provided on most new, upgraded (from the 1980s onwards), and major national roads in the Republic of Ireland, especially on wide two-lane and dual-carriageway roads (the shoulders on most 2+1 roads are narrow however). They are defined within the official document the Rules of the Road as a part of the road that should normally only be used by cyclists and pedestrians. Their provision of on interurban routes in the 1970s reportedly resulted in a 50% decrease in accidents involving pedal cyclists.[31]

De-escalation trainings are increasingly popular in law enforcement, though the actual tactics used can vary. De-escalation techniques focus on slowing down potentially volatile situations and reducing the immediacy of threat during these encounters. The goal of de-escalation is to resolve the situation without using force or with a reduction in the severity of force used.

Engel, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Herold, T. D. (2020). Does de‐escalation training work? A systematic review and call for evidence in police use‐of‐force reform. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(3), 721-759. Retrieved July 2021 from https://prohic.nl/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2020-08-20-PoliceDeescalationPoliceForceMeta.August2020.pdf

Normally one is not allowed to drive on the shoulder, but in case of traffic blockage, use of the shoulder is allowed to reach an exit if it is within 500 metres.

International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), & University of Cincinnati (UC) Center for Police Research Policy. (2017). Assessing the impact of co-responder team programs: A review of research. Washington, DC: IACP. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IDD/Review%20of%20Co-Responder%20Team%20Evaluations.pdf

Hassell, K. D. (2020). The impact of crisis intervention team training for police. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 22(2), 159-170. Retrieved July 2021 from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461355720909404

Sometimes, an officer will still need to apply force. However, they can still opt for a less-lethal use of force, particularly if the subject does not appear to have a firearm. Should a use of force eventually occur, operational techniques can also help an officer resolve the situation without resorting to lethal force.

Antrobus, E., Thompson, I., & Ariel, B. (2019). Procedural justice training for police recruits: results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15(1), 29-53. Retrieved July 2021 from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-018-9331-9

During an LE-citizen encounter, threat assessment helps objectively assess demeanor and differentiate behavior-based threats from personality quirks or symptoms of mental illness. An officer also may be able to better recognize when to call for back-up and/or a mental health response team. Assessment of behavior-based threats will also help an officer decide when to use de-escalation techniques and whether doing so might put his or others’ safety in jeopardy.

Is it illegal to pull over on the left side of the highway

Wolfe, S., Rojek, J., McLean, K., & Alpert, G. (2020). Social interaction training to reduce police use of force. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political & Social Science, 687(1), 124-145. Retrieved July 2021 from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0002716219887366

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In this post, we are going to describe these different de-escalation techniques, provide you with resources to learn more, and describe how active threat assessment can help your personnel de-escalate situations.

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A recent study conducted by the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) in Australia[34] has revealed 29 closed case fatalities (and at least a dozen case fatalities still under coronial investigation) that had been reported to Australian coroners where a person was "struck in an emergency lane after their vehicle had stopped" between July 2000 and November 2010.[35]

Drivers will sometimes drift into the shoulder when being overtaken by passing vehicles, particularly on two-lane roads. However, it is extremely unsafe, and in most jurisdictions illegal, to abuse the shoulder by 'undertaking' passing vehicles that are nearer the centre of the road.

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ICAT was evaluated in Louisville, Kentucky and Camden, New Jersey, and both studies showed promising results. The Louisville study showed significant reductions in use of force, citizen injuries, and officer injuries, while the Camden study found reductions in serious force events. The ICAT training also seems to increase officer confidence in handling volatile LE-citizen encounters, particularly with PMI. ICAT has been implemented in many agencies throughout the United States, and empirical results are promising so far.

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The use of appropriately designed segregated space on arterial or interurban routes appears to be associated with reductions in overall risk. In Ireland, the provision of hard shoulders on interurban routes in the 1970s reportedly resulted in a 50% decrease in accidents.[31] It is reported that the Danes have also found that separate cycle tracks lead to a reduction in rural collisions.[32]

Mehari, K. R., Rodgers, C. R., Blanton, M. A., & Turner, L. A. (2021). Evaluation of a police training on de-escalation with trauma-exposed youth. International Journal of Law, Crime & Justice, 66(2021), 100491. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1756061621000367

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Taser Weapons: Use Of Tasers By Selected Law Enforcement Agencies. Created by United United States Government Accountability.

Elizabeth Berger is a published author and research methodologist specializing in policing. Prior to joining the Sacramento-based Criminal Justice Legal Foundation in April 2021, she resided in the D.C. area and worked as a researcher, freelance writer, and translational scientist, both independently and in partnerships with other organizations including the American Society of Evidence-Based Policing. In addition, Ms. Berger was a Research Associate at the Police Executive Research Forum, where she designed and led applied research projects with several law enforcement agencies. She holds M.S. and B.S. degrees in Criminal Justice with concentrations in Statistics from Niagara University in Lewiston, NY.

Bennell, C., Blaskovits, B., Jenkins, B., Semple, T., Khanizadeh, A. J., Brown, A. S., & Jones, N. J. (2020). Promising practices for de-escalation and use-of-force training in the police setting: a narrative review. Policing: An International Journal. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2020-0092/full/html?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=rss_journalLatest

Niagara University First Responders Disability Awareness Training (FRDAT). (ND). “Mental Health and De-escalation Training for Law Enforcement Professionals.” Retrieved July 27 from https://nu.protraining.com/

In the United States, on Interstate 93 between Exit 35 (formerly 41)[17] and Exit 43 (formerly 46)[18] and SR 3 between Exit 27 (formerly 12)[19] and Exit 38 (formerly 16)[20] in the Boston metro area, cars are allowed to use the shoulder as they would a normal lane during morning and evening rush hours. The same scheme is employed elsewhere, such as on Interstate 580 in California on the Richmond-San Rafael Bridge, and on Interstate 405 between SR 527 and I-5 in Bothell.[21]

In a similar manner to Canada, Italy and the United States, the shoulders located on the side of Australia's highways are normally used as an emergency lane in the case of a breakdown or by emergency vehicles in the case of road congestion. However, no mandatory regulations exist to wear a high-visibility jacket when dismounting from the vehicle stopped in an emergency lane.

These stun guns are powerful, rechargeable, and durable. Many of these heavy duty tasers include features such as flashlights or a personal alarm.

The officer’s goal when using operational techniques is to not only protect himself but also create additional attempts to de-escalate. For example, in a rapidly evolving scenario involving a person with a knife, an officer can use an operational skill such as tactical positioning to create distance between himself and the subject, which may allow for another verbal de-escalation attempt.

Can youpull over on a road shoulder if tired Victoria

Rogers, M. S., McNiel, D. E., & Binder, R. L. (2019). Effectiveness of police crisis intervention training programs. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 47(4), 414-421. Retrieved July 2021 from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31551327/

Is it illegal tostopon the side of a highway

In the United Kingdom, usage of the hard shoulder is known as "hard shoulder running". A pilot project on an 18-kilometre (11 mi) stretch of the M42 motorway, near Birmingham, began in September 2006. Active traffic management with special signage, new laybys and a controlled variable speed limit have been put in place to improve safety. This has proved very successful, with journey times decreasing by 26% northbound and 9% southbound. Drivers can also better predict their journey times as the variability decreased by 27%. The average accident rate dropped from 5.2 to 1.5 per month.[12] It has also proved popular with motorists, 60% of whom want to see it expanded to other English motorways.[citation needed] This 'smart motorway' system has been expanded to the M6,[13] M1[14] and M25,[15] as well as parts of the M60 and M62.[16]

There are also some bus-bypass shoulders in the United Kingdom, on the motorways of Northern Ireland heading towards Belfast and the M90 motorway in Scotland towards Edinburgh.

On freeways in foggy areas of California, there is an obvious break in the line of the shoulder before every exit. This is to help drivers find their exits in heavy fog (especially the dangerous tule fog).[36]

What is the shoulder of the road used for

National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). (ND). “Crisis Intervention Team Programs.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from https://www.nami.org/Advocacy/Crisis-Intervention/Crisis-Intervention-Team-(CIT)-Programs

Isaza, G. T., McManus, H. D., Engel, R. S., & Corsaro, N. (2019). Assessing the impact of Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT) training program for the University of Cincinnati, OH Police Division (UCPD). Washington, DC: IACP & UC Center for Police Research and Policy. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/Research%20Center/UCPD_ICAT%20Evaluation_Final.pdf

In the 2000s, Bus Éireann coaches were allowed to use the hard shoulders on national roads into Dublin. However, dedicated bus lanes are now present on sections of some routes, such as the N7 Naas Road, and such use of actual hard shoulder is not universal.

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If communication tactics fail or are not appropriate for the situation, an officer may need to employ operational techniques. Operational techniques include skills such as using distance and cover to create time, tactical positioning/repositioning, and potentially calling additional resources to the scene.

Police Executive Research Forum (PERF). (ND). “About ICAT.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from https://www.policeforum.org/about-icat

Police Executive Research Forum (PERF). (2016). Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT): A training guide for defusing critical incidents. Washington, DC: PERF. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.policeforum.org/assets/icattrainingguide.pdf

Sometimes an officer will need to use force, though the force does not need to be lethal. Assessing active threats through behavioral change helps an officer dynamically gauge a potential threat, and might be the reason an officer chooses to use a lower level of force as opposed to lethal force.

Florida has developed a plan for the use of inside shoulders by moving traffic during hurricane evacuations on portions of Interstate 4 (eastbound from Tampa to Celebration), Interstate 10 (westbound from Jacksonville to Tallahassee), Interstate 75 (northbound from Naples to I-10; both directions from Naples to Ft. Lauderdale), Interstate 95 (northbound from West Palm Beach to near Jacksonville), Florida's Turnpike (northbound from Boynton Beach to Kissimmee and Winter Garden to I-75), and Florida State Road 528 (westbound through rural Orange County).[22][23][24] Florida's ESU plan prohibits trucks, busses, and trailers from driving on the shoulder and limits the speed limit to 50 mph on the shoulder, which is typically only 10 feet (3.0 m) wide compared to the standard 12 feet (3.7 m) width of highway travel lanes and contains rumble strips.[22] The shoulder-use plan was implemented in place of labour- and resource-intensive contraflow lane reversal, in which both sides of an interstate highway are used for one direction of traffic.[24]

An officer may work alongside specially trained civilian personnel to respond to crises in the form of a mental health response team, or they may rely on a mobile crisis unit, which is a specially-trained entity separate from the police. Research reviews from 2018 and 2020 explain how frameworks of co-responder programs vary greatly, making it difficult to know which framework is the most effective. Nonetheless, the research has shown that co-responder programs can reduce the amount of police time spent on mental health calls, increase access to services for PMI, and decrease repeat calls, benefiting the police and the community.

The right-hand shoulder is separated by a solid white line, and the left-hand shoulder (if the road is one-way, such as part of a divided highway) is separated from the leftmost through lane by a solid yellow line. On many roads, the lines are supplemented by reflective raised pavement markers or rumble strips to provide additional visual and tactile feedback to drivers crossing the lines.

The US Federal Highway Administration encourages the placement of a Safety Edge—a 30° compacted taper on the end of the pavement drop-off—to ensure that any driver running off the edge of the roadway is better able to maintain control while trying to steer back onto the roadway. The Safety Edge is effective on roads where the shoulder is narrow or non-existent.[3]

To save money, the shoulder was often not paved to the same thickness as the through lanes, so if vehicles were to attempt to use it as a through lane regularly, it would rapidly deteriorate. In Britain, shoulder running can occur during roadworks, and full depth construction is now standard. In some metro areas, road authorities also allow shoulders to be used as lanes at peak periods. However, rural shoulders often collect various bits of road debris that can make driving there less safe.

In France, roadway shoulders are usually 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) wide, or 3 metres (10 ft) wide when the roadway carries more than 2,000 vehicles per day. The main difference from other European countries is that the white line is dashed, typically 39 metres (128 ft) long with gaps 13 metres (43 ft) long. The design is intended to provide a guide for drivers to maintain a safe distance between vehicles. Road signs can be found along motorways, to indicate the safe distance (1 line = too close, 2 lines = safe distance). At some points (tunnel, bridge, narrow road with no shoulder, tight curve) the edge line becomes solid.

In the Seattle area, Community Transit and Sound Transit Express commuter buses are authorised to use the shoulders of Interstate 5 and Interstate 405 on small segments in Snohomish County as part of a pilot project that aims to reduce delayed bus trips.[11]

Full width hard shoulders are usually provided only on motorways and are usually 3.3 metres (11 ft) wide, but there are exceptions. Some motorways do not have hard shoulders at all (for example the A57(M) and many smart motorways where the hard shoulder has been converted into a running lane, named all lane running smart motorways) and there are a small number of dual carriageway A-roads which do possess hard shoulders (for example, parts of the A1, A2 and A27). Hard shoulders are always marked with a reflecting solid white line which is 20 centimetres (7.9 in) wide and is provided with a rumble strip. A line of red cats' eyes is also used, and is placed to the side of the line.

In some countries, the use of shoulders is optional for cyclists, who may choose not to use it for reasons such as: it being too narrow, inviting dangerously close passes at high speed by motorists; it having a road surface unsuitable for cycling or putting the path of the cyclist in direct conflict with the paths of other road users, such as those turning across the shoulder. Generally, the usable width of the road begins where one can ride without increased danger of falls, jolts or blowouts. A road may have a gravel shoulder, its edge may be covered with sand or trash and the pavement may be broken.[33]

On many modern non-motorway roads, hard strips are provided. These are usually 1 metre (3.3 ft) wide, and are bounded by thinner solid white lines, and often without a rumble strip.

In some jurisdictions in the United States and Canada, buses are allowed to drive on the shoulder to pass traffic jams, which is called a bus-only shoulder or bus-bypass shoulder (BBS);[4] the term "bus-only shoulder lane" is incorrect from a technical and legal standpoint.[5] In Ontario, Highway 403 had its shoulders between Hurontario Street and Erin Mills Parkway widened in 2003 so they serve a dual purpose as bus lanes and accident lanes. In the Minneapolis–Saint Paul region of Minnesota, over 430 kilometres (270 mi) of shoulder have been designated for use by buses.[6] The Route 9 BBS in Central New Jersey which runs along two stretches of shoulders are dedicated for exclusive bus use during peak hours.[7][8] The bus lanes, which run for approximately 4.8 kilometres (3 mi), are the first component of a planned 32-kilometre (20 mi) BBS corridor.[9] In the Chicago area, Pace buses are authorised to use the shoulder of the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway, Edens Expressway, and Stevenson Expressway to avoid delays from traffic congestion.[10]

Want to help your officers become more proficient at identifying behavior-based threats? Check out our active threat course offerings today! We have a free online course for you to learn more about active threat assessment now.

One increasingly popular de-escalation training is ICAT (Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics), developed by the Police Executive Research Forum. The 40-hour program includes a range of modules that incorporate scenario-based learning and video case studies related to critical decision-making, crisis recognition, communications skills, and operational tactics.

Another approach is disability awareness training, such as FRDAT (First Responder Disability Awareness Training) based in New York. FRDAT offers resources on how to recognize and communicate with PMI and people with various disabilities. FRDAT’s resources and trainings have been used in various agencies throughout several states and Canada. Anecdotal evidence suggests that it helps to decrease use of force, increase officer awareness of mental health symptoms, and increase their efficiency and confidence in handling mental health calls. However, it has yet to be rigorously evaluated.

University of Memphis. (ND). “Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) National Curriculum.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from http://www.cit.memphis.edu/curriculuma.php?id=0

Coleman, T., & Cotton, D. (2014). TEMPO: A contemporary model for police education and training about mental illness. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry, 37(4), 325-333. Retrieved July 2021 from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24720915/

Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) International. (ND). “CIT Best Practice Guide.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from https://www.citinternational.org/bestpracticeguide/

Puntis, S., Perfect, D., Kirubarajan, A., Bolton, S., Davies, F., Hayes, A., ... & Molodynski, A. (2018). A systematic review of co-responder models of police mental health ‘street’ triage. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 1-11. Retrieved July 2021 from https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-018-1836-2

Goh, L. S. (2021). Did de‐escalation successfully reduce serious use of force in Camden County, New Jersey? A synthetic control analysis of force outcomes. Criminology & Public Policy, 20(2), 207-241. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1745-9133.12536

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Similar to ICAT, a different de-escalation training specific to LE interactions with trauma-exposed youth appeared to increase officers’ confidence in their abilities to handle these situations, per a 2021 study.

The shoulders located on the sides of Italy's highways are normally used as emergency lanes in case of breakdown or by emergency vehicles in case of queues. According to the regulation in force, it is mandatory to wear a high visibility jacket when dismounting from a vehicle stopped in an emergency lane.[37]

De-escalating a volatile situation requires constant awareness, observation, and assessment of one’s surroundings. Active threat assessment helps an officer gauge both the immediacy and severity of a potential threat even when the threat changes throughout the encounter. The awareness of threat indicators helps an officer more objectively (rather than subjectively) identify the immediacy of a threat.

The Jingjintang Expressway in north-eastern China is an example of this phenomenon. Its shoulder is only 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) wide, which is not wide enough for some automobiles—a standard lane in the U.S. and UK is 3.7 metres (12 ft). As a result, some motorists are unable to fully exit the mainline when they need to pull over, so they end up in a position that is halfway in the rightmost lane and only partly on the shoulder. The end result is often a traffic jam and occasionally a collision.

Although direct rear impacts only make up 3% of motorist-on-cyclist collisions,[citation needed] they are a more prominent collision type in arterial road type situations. When they occur in such circumstances, they are also associated with significantly increased risk of fatality. Data collated by the OECD indicates that rural locations account for 35% or more of cycling fatalities in Denmark, Finland, France, Great Britain, Japan, the Netherlands, and Spain.[30]

A shoulder (American English), hard shoulder (British English)[1] or breakdown lane (Australian English) is an emergency stopping lane by the verge on the outer side of a road or motorway. Many wider freeways, or expressways elsewhere have shoulders on both sides of each directional carriageway—in the median, as well as at the outer edges of the road, for additional safety. Shoulders are not intended for use by through traffic, although there are exceptions.

Communication is especially key when it comes to engaging with persons with mental illness (PMI) or those in crisis. Most PMI are not dangerous, but a special set of skills can help communicate effectively with this population. Skills focus on recognizing the signs and symptoms of mental illnesses and/or substance abuse and how to communicate effectively in these situations.

The shoulder is usually slightly narrower than a full traffic lane. In some cases, particularly on older rural roadways, shoulders that initially existed were hardened with gravel rather than being paved with asphalt, tarmac or concrete. In Britain, motorway shoulders are now paved, but are still known as "hard shoulders". Older, gravel shoulders have sometimes been termed soft shoulders by comparison. Because the paved surface ends at that point, they are less safe if they need to be used for emergency manoeuvres. Notably, the section of Ontario Highway 401 between Windsor and London had soft shoulders with a sharp slope which was blamed for facilitating vehicle rollovers, if drivers accidentally drifted off the paved section of the road and then overreacted after hitting the gravel. Modern practice is to build a continuous paved shoulder whenever possible.[2]

The first implementation of the plan occurred on 8–9 September 2017 before the arrival of Hurricane Irma.[25][26][27] Florida implemented ESU again in October 2024 prior to the arrival of Hurricane Milton, which underwent explosive intensification from a Category 1 into a Category 5 hurricane two days before its forecast landfall on the west central Gulf Coast of Florida as a major hurricane which prompted a large evacuation from the Tampa Bay and Sarasota-Bradenton areas.[28][29] Texas has also considered emergency shoulder use for hurricane evacuations.[24]

Shouldyoupull over on the road shoulder if tired

The hard shoulder is usually demarcated by road markings in the form of a single dashed yellow line with the addition of yellow cat's eyes. On motorways, and at critical points on other routes (e.g. between junctions or interchanges, or beneath overpasses) a solid yellow line is used, denoting additional restrictions on usage of the hard shoulder. At junctions and on-ramps and off-ramps, the yellow line peels away into the turn, with a dashed white line (with green cats' eyes) denoting a lane division following the main route (i.e. in most cases the road remains the same width, and a turn lane takes the place of the hard shoulder).

Intro to Active ThreatSituational AwarenessThreat ObservationThreat Awareness for Law EnforcementThreat Awareness for Security ProfessionalsThreat Awareness RefresherEvidence Disclosure

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Verbal and non-verbal communication can be helpful for de-escalating certain situations.  Verbal techniques cover things like interpersonal effectiveness, conflict resolution, and empathic listening skills. Non-verbal techniques emphasize things like giving undivided attention or being mindful of tone of voice. Many of these concepts are also covered in procedural justice and social interaction trainings, and have been found to improve citizen and officer satisfaction during LE-citizen encounters.

Critical decision-making skills cover things like knowing whether it is safe to ‘tactically pause’ and engage verbally with a suspect. During the tactical pause, communications and crisis recognition skills (which are oten similar to those emphasized in CIT) can be used to de-escalate emotional responses. Operational tactics can create additional chances for de-escalation that might not otherwise be possible.

Engel, R. S., Corsaro, N., Isaza, G. T., & McManus, H. D. (2020). Examining the impact of Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT) de-escalation training for the Louisville Metro Police Department: Initial findings. Washington, DC: IACP & UC Center for Police Research and Policy. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/Research%20Center/LMPD_ICAT%20Evaluation%20Initial%20Findings%20Report_FINAL%2009212020.pdf

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