There are very many applications where both types of technology are important. In general, a need for CCD technology can be seen in life science, as well as in high-end inspection applications - that is, applications where high image quality is required, such as in microscopy - but also in applications where longer exposure times play a major role. Here, CCDs can exploit their advantage of a lower dark current.

The degree of similarity we found across countries was startling. Even in democracies as different as Colombia, Kenya, and Poland, many of the roots, patterns, and drivers of polarization were the same.

While partisan warfare hasn’t eroded democracy in the United States to the same extent that it has in, say, Bangladesh or Turkey, it is testing our democratic guardrails in serious ways.

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We focused on nine diverse countries grappling with the problem: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Poland, Turkey, and the United States. We assembled a group of scholars with deep local expertise on these countries, and they produced in-depth case studies.

Polarizationin Chemistry

Polarization is tearing at the seams of democracies around the world, from Brazil and India to Poland and Turkey. It isn’t just an American illness; it’s a global one.

Particularly striking was just how decisive polarizing leaders often are. Figures like Narendra Modi in India, Jarosław Kaczyński in Poland, and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkey have relentlessly inflamed basic divisions and entrenched them throughout society (often with resounding electoral success). They’ve aggravated tensions not only by demonizing opponents and curtailing democratic processes but also by pushing for radical changes—like a total ban on abortion in Poland.

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Still, these initiatives are small compared to the larger forces driving polarization. Democracies will need to rise to this challenge in new and determined ways if they are to swim successfully against the swelling global current of polarization.

For one, several promising efforts to limit polarization have focused on institutional reforms, such as decentralizing political power or changing electoral rules. Kenya, for instance, adopted a new constitution in 2010 that sought to ease ferocious competition for national office by giving regional officials greater autonomy and control over state resources. But important reforms don’t always require changing a country’s constitution: in the United States, for example, Maine passed legislation in 2016 to enact ranked-choice voting, a system that favors centrist candidates and discourages negative campaigning.

From these, we extracted cross-cutting findings. And the sheer diversity of our cases—in terms of societal makeup, political institutions, and economic development—opened our eyes to discoveries that we might have missed if we had looked only at the United States and Europe.

Faced with Donald Trump’s return to the White House and his threat to transatlantic relations, the EU is woefully ill-equipped to act swiftly on foreign policy and security issues. An EU Security Council would go a long way in empowering it to respond more effectively.

We also found that patronage and corruption—two decidedly antidemocratic practices—can temporarily reduce polarization by helping politicians build very big tents. In the long term, however, the political rot that this causes frequently leaves voters disgusted with the traditional parties and fuels the rise of divisive populist figures, like Hugo Chávez in Venezuela and Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil.

Our work identifies and analyzes eight different types of remedial actions, ranging from dialogue efforts and media reforms to international action. We’ll highlight just three examples here.

Polarization tends to escalate at a dizzyingly fast pace, often in the span of just a few years. Just look at how rapidly the 2016 Brexit referendum has ripped the United Kingdom apart.

In the first place, polarization in the United States isn’t primarily the result of polarizing politicians stoking divisions, as in most other countries. It has deep societal roots and is the outcome of a profound sociocultural struggle between contending conservative and progressive visions of the country. Consequently, U.S. polarization is not something that political leaders can easily reverse, even if they want to.

That finding gave us pause: it showed us that the potential for destructive divisions exists in almost all societies, even ones that seem relatively homogeneous. Our research underscores just how vulnerable democracies are to polarization—and how powerful the factors fueling divisions are.

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Take the example of Bangladesh: acrimonious political competition there has led to violence, election fraud, and a complete breakdown of democracy. But polarization isn’t rooted in any fundamental ethnic, ideological, or religious division among voters. It is almost entirely the result of power struggles within a political elite that plays up and manufactures divisions.

The more we looked at the experiences of other divided democracies, the more we realized that U.S. polarization stands out as unusual. It has several distinctive features, and unfortunately, all of them spell trouble for U.S. democracy.

Polarization then entrenches itself and becomes self-perpetuating. Polarizing actions and reactions feed on each other, dragging countries into a downward spiral of anger and division.

CCD and CMOS differ fundamentally in their architecture. In a CCD sensor, the charge is transported across the entire chip and read in one corner of the array. An analog-to-digital converter converts each pixel into a digital value. In contrast, in most CMOS sensors, there are multiple transistors for each pixel that amplify the charge and transport it using traditional conductors. The CMOS approach is more flexible because each pixel can be read individually.

Political leadership can also play a crucial role in de-escalating partisan divides. In Ecuador, President Lenín Moreno has rejected the polarizing tactics of his predecessor, even though the two come from the same political party. And in Turkey, opposition parties have achieved modest success by uniting to form a coalition: their candidate for mayor of Istanbul won a resounding victory in 2019 with a campaign that emphasized overcoming divisions.

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And while the consequences of polarization are punishing, they don’t necessarily galvanize a government to respond, because the politicians who play the most significant role in exacerbating polarization mostly benefit from it and bear little of the cost.

The Democracy, Conflict, and Governance Program is a leading source of independent policy research, writing, and outreach on global democracy, conflict, and governance. It analyzes and seeks to improve international efforts to reduce democratic backsliding, mitigate conflict and violence, overcome political polarization, promote gender equality, and advance pro-democratic uses of new technologies.

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Partisan conflict takes a heavy toll on civil society as well, often leading to the demonization of activists and human rights defenders. More seriously still, divisions can contribute to a spike in hate crimes and political violence: India, Poland, and the United States have all seen such increases in recent years.

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Once a society becomes deeply divided, it is very difficult to heal. Before talking about remedial actions, it’s crucial to understand why this problem is so thorny and difficult to overcome.

Polarization is shaking societies across the world, from new democracies to long-established ones. Why are political divisions intensifying globally, and what can policymakers learn from other countries’ experiences?

A final distinctive and perhaps even unique feature of U.S. polarization is the powerful alignment of ethnicity, ideology, and religion on each side of the divide—what we call the “iron triangle” of U.S. polarization. In most other countries, just one or two of those three identity divisions is at the root of polarization; in the United States, all three are. As a result, America’s polarization is unusually encompassing and sharp.

Polarization also reverberates throughout the society as whole, poisoning everyday interactions and relationships. Turkey is a particularly jarring example: almost eight out of ten people there would not want their daughter to marry someone who votes for the party they most dislike. Nearly three-quarters would not even want to do business with such a person.

Point Grey estimates that the market is currently roughly divided into 75 percent CCD versus 25 percent CMOS technology. In machine vision, CCD use is still more common to date due to its high imaging quality and low readout noise.

With CCD and CMOS technology, there is a concept of an electronic shutter. One fundamental difference is that CCDs use a global shutter mechanism, which means that all pixels on the CCD are both exposed at the same time and have their exposure stopped at the same time. Conventional CMOS technology, on the other hand, uses a rolling shutter function. This means that the pixels are exposed to light line by line at different times.

We wanted to know: Why has polarization come to a boil in so many places in recent years? Are there any telling similarities in the patterns of polarization across different countries? And perhaps most importantly, once societies have become deeply polarized, what can they do to start healing their divisions?

The disadvantage: rolling shutter causes a distortion effect when capturing fast-moving objects. While each sensor line is gradually exposed to light, the object to be imaged is captured by each line in different phases of its motion. This creates distortion artifacts. This has been a problem with the use of CMOS with rolling shutters in cameras for machine vision. However, over the past five years, we are seeing more and more global-shutter CMOS sensors on the market. Just recently, Sony released its version, the IMX174 sensor. This is integrated into Point Grey's Grasshopper3 camera. Like a CCD sensor, it delivers undistorted images. This is one reason why CMOS is becoming more and more widespread and steadily gaining market share. One no longer has to do without the global shutter function that is required in machine vision applications.

Many other drivers of polarization struck us as surprising, even counterintuitive. You might expect, for instance, that a growing economy would ease polarization. Yet we found that in some places, such as India, it actually made things worse. Indeed, the growth of India’s middle class has led to rising support for polarizing Hindu nationalist narratives.

When we looked at the fierce polarization in many countries, we expected to find deep-seated differences between the opposing sides. So we were taken aback to discover that sometimes those differences seem slight.

Polarizationcharacteristics

Polarizationin Physics

Other efforts have involved legal or judicial action to limit polarization and majoritarianism—the idea that the feelings and rights of the minority should not constrain leaders with majority support. In India, for example, the Supreme Court has spoken out in defense of democratic institutions and demanded greater accountability for hate crimes and political violence.

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Amplifying the effect of these divisive figures is the technologically fueled disruption of the media industry, especially the rise of social media. Opposition leaders often fan the flames as well by responding with antidemocratic and confrontational tactics of their own. In Turkey, for instance, the head of the main opposition party stoked tensions by calling on the military to oppose Erdoğan’s potential bid for the presidency in 2007.

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Intense partisanship has gripped the United States for an unusually long time and thus become ingrained in social and political life. Today’s divisions date back at least to the 1960s and have been steadily intensifying for over fifty years. Most other current cases of polarization are more recent in origin.

Both sensor technologies have evolved in recent years. On the CCD side, for example, we have multi-tap output, improved image performance and higher sensitivity. On the CMOS side, one of the major developments is the growing choice of global shutter CMOS sensors on the market. A traditional camera has a mechanical shutter that lets light in and then closes the shutter to stop further light from entering.

Yet despite these challenges, our research shows that a wide range of actors have tried inventive ways of addressing the problem—and sometimes achieved encouraging results.

04.03.2022 - CMOS is becoming increasingly popular, but CCD is far from obsolete. When does which image sensor technology make sense and where do both play out their advantages? So far, CCD sensors still impress with higher image quality and lower noise, whereas CMOS sensors score in terms of energy consumption and smear and blooming effects. With more choice of global shutter sensors, CMOS continues to catch up.

A lot of research shows how populist and illiberal leaders are putting democracy in danger. But it rarely addresses what we feel is a more fundamental, underlying problem: severe political polarization.

These consequences generate a vicious cycle of rising polarization. Attacks on the judiciary, for example, only diminish its capacity to arbitrate conflict and heighten distrust between the opposing sides.

The Democracy, Conflict, and Governance Program is a leading source of independent policy research, writing, and outreach on global democracy, conflict, and governance. It analyzes and seeks to improve international efforts to reduce democratic backsliding, mitigate conflict and violence, overcome political polarization, promote gender equality, and advance pro-democratic uses of new technologies.

It routinely undermines the independence of the judiciary, as politicians attack the courts as biased or pack them with loyalists. It reduces legislatures either to gridlock or to a rubberstamp function. In presidential systems, it frequently leads to the abuse of executive powers and promotes the toxic view that the president represents only his or her supporters, rather than the country as a whole.

So far, CCD (charge-coupled device) sensors still achieve higher quality, produce images with lower noise, and offer higher sensitivity. Their manufacturing process is more mature and they have higher resolution. Nevertheless, CMOS sensors also have their advantages: CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) traditionally consumes less power, they are less expensive because they are cheaper to manufacture, and smear as well as blooming effects are not an issue with CMOS sensors.

A wide range of applications is opening up for global shutter CMOS technology: From traditional automation inspection of a production line to traffic applications. We are also seeing a lot of interest in many 3D scanner applications. There, CMOS technology is preferred due to lower power consumption and often lower cost. While not impossible, it is more difficult to work with a rolling shutter for 3D scanning. Therefore, a global shutter CMOS sensor is especially worthwhile for any kind of 3D scanning application.

Perhaps most fundamentally, polarization shatters informal but crucial norms of tolerance and moderation—like conceding peacefully after an electoral defeat—that keep political competition within bounds.