Types of diffraction grating

... beams, the basic properties of laser light, the three ranges of laser light wavelengths, the two types of laser light reflection, and the laser classifications.

The notion of reality as encoded information is difficult to grasp. The Holometer website explains it with an analogy: a painted wall. If you zoom in on a blue wall, you will see droplets of blue paint. Zoom in further, and you will see blue molecules that make up blue paint. But zoom in even further, and the individual electrons, neutrons, and protons have no intrinsic color. They don’t appear blue. By working together, they provide the information that ultimately reads as blue. This is an example of emergence—when a property becomes apparent only on a macro­scale. Likewise, when we look at the world around us, we see three dimensions. Zoom in far enough, and we may find that space-time is emergent, made of two-dimensional sheets encoding a three-dimensional environment.

The larger the full well capacity, yet the better the maximum signal-noise ratio. Consumer cameras with pixel sizes of 1.7 μm require only about 1,000 photons for the pixel saturation. In case of digitalisation with 8, 10, or even 12 bits, other noise effects (photon noise, digitalisation noise, dark noise) can already assume significant scales, interfere with the signal and thus influence the image in an extremely negative way.

Diffraction Grating Film

In case of high-resolution area scan or line scan cameras, significantly larger sensors with a size of several centimetres are used. The dimensions of these sensors are normally not standardised and result from the resolution and pixel sizes of the sensors. Everything is permitted and only limited by the budget.

Specular reflection is a type of surface reflectance often described as a mirror-like reflection of light from the surface. In specular reflection, the incident ...

What Hogan and the Holometer experiment are not trying to do is prove that reality is a projection or Matrix-style simulation, as some recent articles seem to imply. This experiment is about illumination, not illusion—how two-dimensional sheets of information create our multidimensional universe. We may all be holograms, but the wall is still blue and we are still real.

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Zoom in on a digital universe, and you’d find pixel-like packets of information. (NASA; photo illustration by Laura Lorenz)

Important: If you have the choice between a larger and a smaller sensor for the same camera version, please take the larger variant if you…

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Industrial cameras usually use 1/3" sensors in case of resolutions of 640 x 480 pixels, cameras with 1280 x 1024 pixels mainly 1/2". The quite popular camera resolution of 1600 x 1200 pixels often uses a somewhat larger sensor with 1/1.8" with the same pixel size.

The team measures light using a Michelson interferometer, a device consisting of a laser, three mirrors, and a detector. A high-frequency laser is shot at a beam splitter (a half-silvered, one-way mirror), and the resulting twin beams travel down 40-meter-long perpendicular arms with mirrors at each end. (The distance the light must travel amplifies the predicted effect.) When the light reflects back and recombines at the splitter, the team measures the beam’s intensity. If it’s dimmer upon return, the twin beams’ wavelengths no longer line up perfectly; one beam’s round-trip took longer than the other. The beam splitter moved.

A line scan camera with 2048 pixels with 10 μm pixel sizes has a line length of 10.48 mm, in case of 14 μm pixel size the sensor is already 28.6 mm long. From 20 mm sensor diagonal on, the C-mount lens connection can no longer be used.

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A century ago, Einstein showed that “space-time is dynamical,” says Hogan. Unlike Newton’s conception of “stuff moving around in this empty container,” space-time “carries energy and information just like matter does. It’s an active player.” But Einstein’s space-time, which still governs our concept of it today, is smooth and continuous—an analog system. Hogan’s experiment could change that. “We think that space-time is a quantum system together with matter and energy,” says Hogan. And a measurable jitter would support that claim.

A real hologram is a two-dimensional surface that contains three-dimensional information. When light reflects off the hologram, the angle from which you view the surface determines whether you will perceive the information as 2-D or 3-D. When Craig Hogan, UChicago astrophysicist and director of Fermilab’s Center for Particle Astrophysics, describes the universe as “holographic,” he is referring to the way space-time is theorized to contain information, with 2-D sheets coding what we perceive as 3-D reality. Hogan’s Holometer experiment at Fermilab, which sparked the media buzz, probes the holographic, information-storing nature of the universe.

Reflection grating

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Infrared diffraction grating

These cameras typically use Nikon bayonet (F-mount) or M42 to M72 as lens connections. Only then high-resolution sensors with large pixels can be used in order to build line scan cameras with up to 12k pixels or area scan cameras with up to 28 million pixels.

If the team does detect a space-time jitter, the next step is to “measure it better” using more light detectors or longer arms, but “first we have to prove it’s real. People will not believe this,” says Hogan. Viewing space-time as a quantum, digital system would change how we understand the universe on a fundamental level—how matter, space, and energy interact; how the universe stores information; and how that information translates to what we deem reality.

The Holometer experiment, whose ultimate goal is to better understand the relationship between matter, energy, and space-time, has to do with these pixels. When looked at very closely, holograms have “fuzziness” directly proportional to pixel size. The smaller the pixel, the clearer the 3-D image. But some fuzziness is always there. Hogan is looking for that fuzziness in space-time, which he calls “holographic noise.”

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This specification describes how many electrons a pixel element can hold before it is completely saturated. A pixel of 5.5 μm structure size can accumulate approximately 20,000 electrons, a 7.4 μm pixel 40,000 electrons.

As a consequence of the miniaturisation of sensors, the pixel sizes grow smaller and smaller. Sensors of consumer cameras (8 to 12 megapixels for 200 euros) have pixel sizes of mostly 1.7 μm today, the light-active surface per pixel is therefore only approximately 3 μm2. This results in an extremely strong sensor noise in case of non-optimal lighting conditions. For quality control using cameras, this is absolutely inacceptable.

A larger sensor with larger pixels is in almost every case the technically better choice, however, the price is always higher.

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The advancing technological development of CCD and CMOS sensors allows for the production of finer and finer semiconductor structures. As a general trend, sensor and pixel sizes shrink in order to cut more and more sensors out of one wafer. This is possible because the sensitivity of the pixels increasingly enhances, too, as much as the noise performance of the electronics is being optimised.

Reflectivediffraction grating

Jonathan D. S. Schroeder, PhD’16, rediscovered a forgotten 19th-century text—then unearthed its author’s extraordinary life story.

This past August, headlines started popping up announcing that the universe might be a hologram, conjuring thoughts of Princess Leia’s message to Obi-Wan Kenobi or Tupac Shakur’s posthumous 2012 Coachella performance or even CNN’s roundly ridiculed 2008 foray into holograms, “beaming” a correspondent from Chicago to New York City. Of course, those weren’t real holograms. CNN used a green screen; Coachella used a high-powered projector and an old magician’s trick called Pepper’s Ghost; Leia’s technology is from a galaxy far, far away.

Classic machine vision cameras have varyingly large sensors, depending on the camera and resolution used. The majority of cameras with smaller sensors are used with so-called C-mount or possibly CS-mount optics. The C-mount thread has an actual diameter of 1 inch, i.e. 25.4 mm and a thread pitch of 1/32 inch.

The sensors used in standard cameras are clearly smaller and range from 4 to 16 mm image diagonal. These sensor sizes, too, are indicated in inches. The 1-inch sensor has a diagonal of 16 mm.

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Pixels with an edge length of 14 or 10 μm are preferentially used in line scan cameras. Due to the high line frequency of 18 Hz, for instance, the maximum exposure time is 1000/18000 = 55 μs for one captured image line. The light-active surface of the pixel can never be large enough in this case.

The experiment actually uses two adjacent interferometers. The team measures a combined signal that over time gradually reduces other sources of noise, yet can indicate whether both beam splitters are “wandering” in exactly the same, random way, moved by the “jittering” of space itself. This correlated—or coherent—jitter is holographic noise. By measuring jittering space-time, which should bounce around randomly about one Planck length every Planck time, the experiment provides access to Planck scale physics.

Digital photographs also exemplify this concept of emergence. Tiny pixels carry the information that, when viewed at a distance, creates the picture you see. The universe’s “film” would be those 2-D sheets. The universe’s “pixels” would be the information coded on those 2-D sheets: the bits of a digital universe.

The Holometer, which was devised more than four years ago and began producing data last summer, is run by a team of 21 scientists and students from UChicago, Fermilab, MIT, and the University of Michigan, led by UChicago astronomy and astrophysics professor Stephan Meyer and Fermilab physicist Aaron Chou. The experiment is “conceptually simple,” Hogan says. “Simplicity is necessary because we’re trying to isolate this fundamental effect.”

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The larger the full well capacity, yet the better the maximum signal-noise ratio. Consumer cameras with pixel sizes of 1.7 μm require only about 1,000 photons for the pixel saturation. In case of digitalisation with 8, 10, or even 12 bits, other noise effects (photon noise, digitalisation noise, dark noise) can already assume significant scales, interfere with the signal and thus influence the image in an extremely negative way.

A key element of a quantum system is its ability to behave as both waves and particles, which gives rise to the uncertainty principle that states you can’t know exactly where a particle is and how it’s moving at the same time. This uncertainty creates a jitter, and matter and energy both exhibit this property.

The inch data of the CCD and CMOS sensors only have a historic explanation: pick-up tubes of TV cameras were used up to the mid-1980s and were long superior to CCD or CMOS sensors which were invented in the late 1960s.

Diffraction grating efficiency

The actual image converter of the tube cameras was located in a glass vacuum tube, and the different pick-up tubes were, among other things, classified according to their outer diameter of the glass bulb. The diagonal of the light-sensitive surface within the tube was of course smaller and represented approximately two thirds of the outer diameter. Equivalent CCD sensors which are supposed to replace the cathode-ray tubes had to cover exactly this surface. A CCD the light-sensitive surface of which corresponds to a 1/2-inch tube was therefore called 1/2-inch sensor, even if this does not correspond to the real CCD sensor size.

As technical limits are reached in this respect, too, it is worthwhile to compare cameras with different sensor and pixel sizes with the same resolution, especially if…

So why does this motion—this jitter—amount to the space-time fuzziness Hogan seeks? It’s a behavior displayed by other systems experimentally known to consist of information bits. Matter and energy are quantum—or digital—systems. They are composed of discrete packets of information, building blocks that can be quantified. Particles are the bits of matter, photons of light. The smallest packets of energy are called quanta, defined by the father of quantum mechanics—Max Planck, whose research led to the Planck scale.

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The universe’s suspected pixel level is the Planck scale, the smallest possible units of length, mass, time, charge, and temperature, based on universal constants like the speed of light and gravity. The smallest known particle is orders of magnitude larger than a Planck length (~1.6 x 10−35 m). It’s hard to comprehend and impossible to directly observe this scale: there are more Planck lengths across a grain of sand than grains of sand required to span the observable universe. “We’ve never seen any sign of direct Planck scale physics,” says Hogan. “So that’s what the experiment is trying to do,” to produce experimentally measurable data on the smallest scale.

In general there is the trend that the sensors become smaller and smaller on the mass camera market. If a standard VGA sensor had, in some cases, a size of 2/3" in the late 1980s, it is only 1/3" today. The miniaturisation is a consequence of enhanced production processes which allow for smaller light-sensitive surfaces with a (hopefully) similar performance. It enables the manufacturers to produce a larger number of sensors at a lower price from one wafer. A 1/3" sensor, for example, has only approximately 40% of the surface of a 1/2" sensor and is therefore cheaper.

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Machine vision cameras (C-mount) with resolutions from VGA to 2 megapixels normally have pixels of 4.6 to 6.5 μm with a 10 - 15 times larger light-active surfaces and thus clearly better signal results. If you need images as noise-free as possible and precise measuring results, look for preferably large sensor pixels, even if these cameras are more expensive!