Spherical aberration describes how a wavefront deviates from the ideal after passing through a refracting surface. In actuality, it is a measure of the effect a ...

The Sun emits UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV") are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic oxygen in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200–315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary dioxygen in air to absorb. This leaves less than 3% of sunlight at sea level in UV, with all of this remainder at the lower energies. The remainder is UV-A, along with some UV-B. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV-A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage.

Silicon diodedetector

A temperature monitor diode chip is mounted on the cooled substrate to provide a direct reading of the temperature of the internal components, which will vary with room temperature. Below -20 °C, the performance of the XR-100CR will not change with a temperature variation of a few degrees. Hence, closed loop temperature control is not necessary when using the XR-100CR at normal room temperature. For OEM applications or hand held XRF instrumentation a closed loop temperature control is recommended. The Active Temperature Control is standard in Amptek electronics such as the PX5 and DP5/PC5.

Amptek has developed a state-of-the-art internal Multilayer Collimator (ML). The base metal is 100 µm of tungsten (W), the first layer is 35 µm of chromium (Cr), the second layer is 15 µm of titanium (Ti), and the last layer is 75 µm of aluminum (Al).

Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength λ, or photon energy E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from 2.4×1023 Hz (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency,[1] so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be indefinitely long. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:

At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light that, although not necessarily in the visible part of the spectrum (it is usually infrared), can carry information. The modulation is similar to that used with radio waves.

The region of the spectrum where a particular observed electromagnetic radiation falls is reference frame-dependent (due to the Doppler shift for light), so EM radiation that one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum. For example, consider the cosmic microwave background. It was produced when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state. These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos.

Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (400–790 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. White light is a combination of lights of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Passing white light through a prism splits it up into the several colours of light observed in the visible spectrum between 400 nm and 780 nm.

The energy resolution of the SiPIN ranges from 139 to 190 eV FWHM depending on the detector area. It is best at count rates below 30 kcps and is suited to X-rays between 1.5 and 30 keV.  It uses a fully depleted 500 um Si-PIN photodiode, and is available with 1 or 0.5 mil Be windows.

Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways across the spectrum. These types of interaction are so different that historically different names have been applied to different parts of the spectrum, as though these were different types of radiation. Thus, although these "different kinds" of electromagnetic radiation form a quantitatively continuous spectrum of frequencies and wavelengths, the spectrum remains divided for practical reasons arising from these qualitative interaction differences.

Throughout most of the electromagnetic spectrum, spectroscopy can be used to separate waves of different frequencies, so that the intensity of the radiation can be measured as a function of frequency or wavelength. Spectroscopy is used to study the interactions of electromagnetic waves with matter.[1]

Efficiency Package: A ZIP file of coefficients and a FAQ about efficiency. This package is provided for general information. It should not be used as a basis for critical quantitative analysis.

The use of the radio spectrum is strictly regulated by governments, coordinated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) which allocates frequencies to different users for different uses.

Figure 5 (linear). Shows the intrinsic full energy detection efficiency for the XR-100CR detectors. This efficiency corresponds to the probability that an X-ray will enter the front of the detector and deposit all of its energy inside the detector via the photoelectric effect.

Next in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV). In frequency (and thus energy), UV rays sit between the violet end of the visible spectrum and the X-ray range. The UV wavelength spectrum ranges from 399 nm to 10 nm and is divided into 3 sections: UVA, UVB, and UVC.

XRF can be used to determine exactly the alloy of a particular piece of metal. Each alloy has a unique ratio of elements, and with XRF, one can non-destructively determine the ratio of elements from the ratio of the intensities of the peaks. The spectrum below shows the spectrum of X-rays emitted from a piece of stainless steel 316, when excited by 109Cd. The strong Fe line indicates that this is based on iron, while the Cr, Mn, Ni, and Mo peaks can be used to identify the alloy. This can be very important in numerous applications, such as quality assurance (verifying a vendor used the correct alloy), process control, metal recycling, etc.

Semiconductordetectordiagram

27mm. 1.06. 55mm. 2.16. 28mm. 1.1. 56mm. 2.2. 29mm. 1.14. 57mm. 2.24. 30mm. 1.18. 1 1/4". 58mm. 2.28. 31mm. 1.22. 59mm. 2.32. 32mm. 1.26. 60mm. 2.36. 33mm. 1.3.

After UV come X-rays, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the Compton effect. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to 'see through' objects with 'thicknesses' less than that equivalent to a few meters of water. One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as radiography). X-rays are useful as probes in high-energy physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena. X-rays are also emitted by stellar corona and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae. However, X-ray telescopes must be placed outside the Earth's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the atmosphere of Earth is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 g/cm2), equivalent to 10 meters thickness of water.[16] This is an amount sufficient to block almost all astronomical X-rays (and also astronomical gamma rays—see below).

Amptek recently brought silicon wafer manufacturing in-house and improved the process. The result is a detector with lower noise, lower leakage current, better charge collection, and uniformity from detector to detector. This makes it the best performing Si-PIN detector available.

The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz to 400 THz (1 mm – 750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:[1]

The thermoelectric cooler cools both the silicon detector and the input FET transistor to the charge sensitive preamplifier. Cooling the FET reduces its leakage current and increases the transconductance, both of which reduce the electronic noise of the system.

Figure 6 (log). Shows the probability of a photon undergoing any interaction, along with the probability of a photoelectric interaction which results in total energy deposition. As shown, the photoelectric effect is dominant at low energies but at higher energies above about 40 keV the photons undergo Compton scattering, depositing less than the full energy in the detector.

HPGedetectorworking principle

All of Amptek’s Si-PIN detectors contain internal multilayer collimators to improve spectral quality. X-rays interacting near the edges of the active volume of the detector may produce small pulses due to partial charge collection. These pulses result in artifacts in the spectrum which, for some applications, obscure the signal of interest. The internal collimator restricts X-rays to the active volume, where clean signals are produced. Depending on the type of detector, collimators can improve peak to background (P/B), eliminate edge effects, eliminate false peaks.

Although a small effect, approximately 1% of the counts of the 5.9 keV peak, an internal multilayer (see below) collimator is used on all 6 mm2/13 mm2/25 mm2 X 500 µm detectors in order to remove the secondary peak.

SemiconductordetectorPDF

Radio waves are extremely widely used to transmit information across distances in radio communication systems such as radio broadcasting, television, two way radios, mobile phones, communication satellites, and wireless networking. In a radio communication system, a radio frequency current is modulated with an information-bearing signal in a transmitter by varying either the amplitude, frequency or phase, and applied to an antenna. The radio waves carry the information across space to a receiver, where they are received by an antenna and the information extracted by demodulation in the receiver. Radio waves are also used for navigation in systems like Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational beacons, and locating distant objects in radiolocation and radar. They are also used for remote control, and for industrial heating.

Terahertz radiation or sub-millimeter radiation is a region of the spectrum from about 100 GHz to 30 terahertz (THz) between microwaves and far infrared which can be regarded as belonging to either band. Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy in the so-called terahertz gap, but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing. Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high-frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their electronic equipment.[14] Terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by atmospheric gases, making this frequency range useless for long-distance communication.

In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen noticed a new type of radiation emitted during an experiment with an evacuated tube subjected to a high voltage. He called this radiation "x-rays" and found that they were able to travel through parts of the human body but were reflected or stopped by denser matter such as bones. Before long, many uses were found for this radiography.

The XR-100CR 7 mm2/300 µm detector is an excellent detector for Mössbauer Spectroscopy. Since the thickness of the detector is only 300 µm, it is very efficient at 14.4 keV and very inefficient at 122 keV. The 57Co spectrum shown here shows a detection efficiency ratio between 14.4 keV and 122 keV of about 1700/1. By using a thin Aluminum absorber between the detector and the source, the 6.4 keV and 7.1 keV peaks can also be eliminated, leaving the 14.4 keV as the only detectable energy peak.

Example: Find the 55Fe row in the above table and locate the resolution of the detector (bold). The column with that resolution lists the resolutions of that detector for these common energies.

Radio waves, at the low-frequency end of the spectrum, have the lowest photon energy and the longest wavelengths—thousands of kilometers, or more. They can be emitted and received by antennas, and pass through the atmosphere, foliage, and most building materials.

Si detectorworking principle

UV is the lowest energy range energetic enough to ionize atoms, separating electrons from them, and thus causing chemical reactions. UV, X-rays, and gamma rays are thus collectively called ionizing radiation; exposure to them can damage living tissue. UV can also cause substances to glow with visible light; this is called fluorescence. UV fluorescence is used by forensics to detect any evidence like blood and urine, that is produced by a crime scene. Also UV fluorescence is used to detect counterfeit money and IDs, as they are laced with material that can glow under UV.

The spectrum below show the plating on electronic connectors. Since Cd cannot be used in certain connector applications, it can be important to verify its presence or absence. This spectrum clearly demonstrate that Cd and Cr were both used in the plating on the steel connector.

The XR-100CR can be operated in air or in vacuum down to 10-8 Torr. There are two ways the XR-100CR can be operated in vacuum: 1) The entire XR-100CR detector and preamplifier box can be placed inside the chamber. In order to avoid overheating and dissipate the 1 Watt of power needed to operate the XR-100CR, good heat conduction to the chamber walls should be provided by using the four mounting holes. An optional Model 9DVF 9-Pin D vacuum feedthrough connector on a Conflat is available to connect the XR-100CR to the PX5 outside the vacuum chamber. 2) The XR-100CR can be located outside the vacuum chamber to detect X-Rays inside the chamber through a standard Conflat compression O-ring port. Optional Model EXV9 (9 inch) vacuum detector extender is available for this application. Click here for more information on vacuum applications and options.

Since optical reset is not practical when the detector is a photodiode, the XR-100CR incorporates a novel feedback method for the reset to the charge sensitive preamplifier. The reset transistor, which is typically used in most other systems has been eliminated. Instead, the reset is done through the high voltage connection to the detector by injecting a precise charge pulse through the detector capacitance to the input FET. This method eliminates the noise contribution of the reset transistor and further improves the energy resolution of the system.

The convention that EM radiation that is known to come from the nucleus is always called "gamma ray" radiation is the only convention that is universally respected, however. Many astronomical gamma ray sources (such as gamma ray bursts) are known to be too energetic (in both intensity and wavelength) to be of nuclear origin. Quite often, in high-energy physics and in medical radiotherapy, very high energy EMR (in the > 10 MeV region)—which is of higher energy than any nuclear gamma ray—is not called X-ray or gamma ray, but instead by the generic term of "high-energy photons".

There are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.

X-rays interact with silicon atoms to create an average of one electron/hole pair for every 3.62 eV of energy lost in the silicon. Depending on the energy of the incoming radiation, this loss is dominated by either the Photoelectric Effect or Compton scattering. The probability or efficiency of the detector to “stop” an x-ray and create electron/hole pairs increases with the thickness of the silicon. For more information, please refer to the Efficiency Curves on the “Performance” tab.

A multilayer collimator is made by progressively using lower Z materials. Each layer acts as an absorber to the fluorescence peaks of the previous layer. The final layer will be of the lowest Z material whose fluorescence peaks are of low enough energy to be outside the anticipated X-ray detection range.

The RoHS / WEEE [Restriction of Hazardous Substances / Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment] directive requires that the electronics industry certify that products comply with maximum concentration amounts of particular elements and compounds (Cr VI, Pb, Cd, Hg, Br PBB/PBDE) by July, 2006. The chart below shows the X-ray spectrum emitted by a combination of chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd). The XR-100CR can be used to verify compliance with the RoHS/WEEE requirements as part of a quality assurance program, via XRF. It permits users to measure the concentration of the specified elements, quickly, accurately, and non-destructively. Companies can verify supplier compliance and demonstrate their own compliance.

Microwaves are radio waves of short wavelength, from about 10 centimeters to one millimeter, in the SHF and EHF frequency bands. Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes. Although they are emitted and absorbed by short antennas, they are also absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating. Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and visible light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface. This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy. Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as Wi-Fi. The copper cables (transmission lines) which are used to carry lower-frequency radio waves to antennas have excessive power losses at microwave frequencies, and metal pipes called waveguides are used to carry them. Although at the low end of the band the atmosphere is mainly transparent, at the upper end of the band absorption of microwaves by atmospheric gases limits practical propagation distances to a few kilometers.

Radio waves are emitted and received by antennas, which consist of conductors such as metal rod resonators. In artificial generation of radio waves, an electronic device called a transmitter generates an alternating electric current which is applied to an antenna. The oscillating electrons in the antenna generate oscillating electric and magnetic fields that radiate away from the antenna as radio waves. In reception of radio waves, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of a radio wave couple to the electrons in an antenna, pushing them back and forth, creating oscillating currents which are applied to a radio receiver. Earth's atmosphere is mainly transparent to radio waves, except for layers of charged particles in the ionosphere which can reflect certain frequencies.

Most of Amptek’s detectors contain internal collimators to improve spectral quality. X-rays interacting near the edges of the active volume of the detector may produce small pulses due to partial charge collection. These pulses result in artifacts in the spectrum which, for some applications, obscure the signal of interest. The internal collimator restricts X-rays to the active volume, where clean signals are produced. Depending on the type of detector, collimators can

The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is partly based on sources: the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and subnuclear/particle process are always termed gamma rays, whereas X-rays are generated by electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons.[6][7][8] In general, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so gamma rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist. By analogy to electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even though their energy may exceed 6 megaelectronvolts (0.96 pJ),[9] whereas there are many (77 known to be less than 10 keV (1.6 fJ)) low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g., the 7.6 eV (1.22 aJ) nuclear transition of thorium-229m), and, despite being one million-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin.[10]

In order to facilitate the electron/hole collection process, a 100-200 volt bias voltage is applied across the silicon depending on the detector thickness. This voltage is too high for operation at room temperature, as it will cause excessive leakage, and eventually breakdown. Since the detector in the XR-100CR is cooled, the leakage current is reduced considerably, thus permitting the high bias voltage. This higher voltage decreases the capacitance of the detector, which lowers system noise.

When it comes to laser tattoo removal, the Q-Switched Nd:YAG laser targets ink pigment and breaks it up into smaller particles through powerful bursts of energy ...

At the middle range of UV, UV rays cannot ionize but can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of middle range UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer. UV rays in the middle range can irreparably damage the complex DNA molecules in the cells producing thymine dimers making it a very potent mutagen. Due to skin cancer caused by UV, the sunscreen industry was invented to combat UV damage. Mid UV wavelengths are called UVB and UVB lights such as germicidal lamps are used to kill germs and also to sterilize water.

The hermetic TO-8 package of the detector has a light tight, vacuum tight, thin Be window to enable soft X-ray detection. There is vacuum inside the enclosure for optimum cooling. The XR-100CR detector includes an internal multilayer collimator to minimize background and spectral artifacts. It has a reset-style preamplifier, using a unique method of resetting through the high voltage connection to minimize noise.

A very important special case in the field of metals analysis is that of lead (Pb). Lead has been commonly used in many products for years, from paint to plumbing solders to electronic assemblies. XRF provides a non-destructive method to assess whether or not lead is present in an item, without damaging the item. The spectrum below shows the characteristic L X-rays emitted from a piece of pure lead, with a 109Cd excitation source.

The most common applications of the XR-100CR are in the field of X-Ray fluorescence, or XRF. This is an analytical technique which determines the elements present in a sample, and does so non-destructively and very rapidly.

Effect (i) reduces the depolarization of hydrogen to 91% of its classical value; (iii) is unimportant unless the frequency of the light is near an absorption ...

Whenever electromagnetic waves travel in a medium with matter, their wavelength is decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, whatever medium they are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, although this is not always explicitly stated.

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Figure 8. Chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) XRF. The RoHS / WEEE directive requires that the electronics industry certify product to comply with maximum concentration amounts of particular elements and compounds (Cr VI, Pb, Cd, Hg, Br PBB/PBDE) by July, 2006.

Si detectorprice

The heart of Amptek’s XR-100CR is a thermoelectrically cooled Si-PIN photodiode which senses the X-rays. The two stage thermoelectric cooler keeps the detector and its input JFET at approximately -55 °C, reducing electronic noise without cryogenic liquid nitrogen. This cooling is key to the XR-100CR since it permits high performance in a compact, convenient package.

The study of electromagnetism began in 1820 when Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that electric currents produce magnetic fields (Oersted's law). Light was first linked to electromagnetism in 1845, when Michael Faraday noticed that the polarization of light traveling through a transparent material responded to a magnetic field (see Faraday effect). During the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell developed four partial differential equations (Maxwell's equations) for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility and behavior of waves in the field. Analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave. Maxwell's equations predicted an infinite range of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Ulrich Villard in 1900. These are the most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their wavelength. In astronomy they are valuable for studying high-energy objects or regions, however as with X-rays this can only be done with telescopes outside the Earth's atmosphere. Gamma rays are used experimentally by physicists for their penetrating ability and are produced by a number of radioisotopes. They are used for irradiation of foods and seeds for sterilization, and in medicine they are occasionally used in radiation cancer therapy.[17] More commonly, gamma rays are used for diagnostic imaging in nuclear medicine, an example being PET scans. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy through the effects of Compton scattering.

The wave-particle debate was rekindled in 1901 when Max Planck discovered that light is absorbed only in discrete "quanta", now called photons, implying that light has a particle nature. This idea was made explicit by Albert Einstein in 1905, but never accepted by Planck and many other contemporaries. The modern position of science is that electromagnetic radiation has both a wave and a particle nature, the wave-particle duality. The contradictions arising from this position are still being debated by scientists and philosophers.

The XR-100CR was a breakthrough in X-ray detector technology, providing “off-the-shelf” performance previously available only from expensive cryogenically cooled systems. Although newer detector technologies are now available, including Amptek’s XR-100SDD and the FastSDD®, the XR-100CR is still the workhorse of the XRF industry because of the combination of good performance and low cost.

Silicondetectorwavelength range

The X-123 can be operated in air or in vacuum down to 10-8 Torr. The X-123 can be connected to the vacuum chamber through a standard Conflat compression O-ring port. Optional Model EXV5 (5 inch) or EXV9 (9 inch) vacuum detector extender is available for this application. See figure 5 above. Click here for more information on vacuum applications and options.

The last portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was filled in with the discovery of gamma rays. In 1900, Paul Villard was studying the radioactive emissions of radium when he identified a new type of radiation that he at first thought consisted of particles similar to known alpha and beta particles, but with the power of being far more penetrating than either. However, in 1910, British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914, Ernest Rutherford (who had named them gamma rays in 1903 when he realized that they were fundamentally different from charged alpha and beta particles) and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, and found that gamma rays were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths.

2023321 — The best way to approach this is to reword it as distance of acceptably sharp focus within a picture.

Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible wavelength range of 400 nm to 700 nm in a vacuum. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm.[1] Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. Spectroscopes are widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave photon that has a wavelength of 21.12 cm. Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae[4] and frequencies as high as 2.9×1027 Hz have been detected from astrophysical sources.[5]

The Simplest, Easiest-to-Use Magnifying Glass in the App Store – Flashlight (LED Torch Light), Digital Magnifier, Restaurant Menu Reader, and Prescription ...

Aspheric optics is a lens design with an aspheric (non-spherical) front surface to better match the shape of the cornea and provide improved visual ...

In the XR-100CR the preamplifier is enclosed in a metal box, 3.0 x 1.75 x 1.125 inches, with the detector on an extender (available lengths: no extender, 1.5″, 5″, and 9”). The XR-100CR with a 5” or 9” extender is suitable for vacuum measurements, using the optional CP75 vacuum flange. Alternate preamplifiers are available, recommended for OEMs or where space is limited.

Aidetector

Gamma rays, at the high-frequency end of the spectrum, have the highest photon energies and the shortest wavelengths—much smaller than an atomic nucleus. Gamma rays, X-rays, and extreme ultraviolet rays are called ionizing radiation because their high photon energy is able to ionize atoms, causing chemical reactions. Longer-wavelength radiation such as visible light is nonionizing; the photons do not have sufficient energy to ionize atoms.

Zinc Selenide Window (ZnSe) features the ability to withstand thermal shock making it an optical material in CO2 laser systems.

Both figures above combine the effects of transmission through the Beryllium window (including the protective coating), and interaction in the silicon detector. The low energy portion of the curves is dominated by the thickness of the Beryllium window, while the high energy portion is dominated by the thickness of the active depth of the Si detector. Depending on the window chosen, 90% of the incident photons reach the detector at energies  ranging from 2 to 3 keV. Depending on the detector chosen, 90% of the photons are detected at energies up to 9 to 12 keV.

In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation.[2] He was studying the temperature of different colours by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red. He theorized that this temperature change was due to "calorific rays", a type of light ray that could not be seen. The next year, Johann Ritter, working at the other end of the spectrum, noticed what he called "chemical rays" (invisible light rays that induced certain chemical reactions). These behaved similarly to visible violet light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum.[3] They were later renamed ultraviolet radiation.

Humans have always been aware of visible light and radiant heat but for most of history it was not known that these phenomena were connected or were representatives of a more extensive principle. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, including reflection and refraction. Light was intensively studied from the beginning of the 17th century leading to the invention of important instruments like the telescope and microscope. Isaac Newton was the first to use the term spectrum for the range of colours that white light could be split into with a prism. Starting in 1666, Newton showed that these colours were intrinsic to light and could be recombined into white light. A debate arose over whether light had a wave nature or a particle nature with René Descartes, Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens favouring a wave description and Newton favouring a particle description. Huygens in particular had a well developed theory from which he was able to derive the laws of reflection and refraction. Around 1801, Thomas Young measured the wavelength of a light beam with his two-slit experiment thus conclusively demonstrating that light was a wave.

If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes the eyes, this results in visual perception of the scene. The brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this insufficiently understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit.

Maxwell's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell's equations and detect such low frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886, the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus to generate and detect what are now called radio waves. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin. In a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves. These new types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.

The Si-PIN is a high performance thermoelectrically cooled X-ray detector and can be combined with several preamplifier and digital pulse processor configurations. It is typically used in laboratory X-ray spectroscopy applications requiring moderate energy resolution and moderate count rates where cost is important. It is well suited to many XRF applications such as identifying metal alloys, verifying RoHS/WEEE compliance, and detecting lead in paint.

Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. The Sun emits its peak power in the visible region, although integrating the entire emission power spectrum through all wavelengths shows that the Sun emits slightly more infrared than visible light.[15] By definition, visible light is the part of the EM spectrum the human eye is the most sensitive to. Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. This action allows the chemical mechanisms that underlie human vision and plant photosynthesis. The light that excites the human visual system is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if it could be seen) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow whilst ultraviolet would appear just beyond the opposite violet end.

The electromagnetic spectrum is the full range of electromagnetic radiation, organized by frequency or wavelength. The spectrum is divided into separate bands, with different names for the electromagnetic waves within each band. From low to high frequency these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. The electromagnetic waves in each of these bands have different characteristics, such as how they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications.

Bandpass filters are more effective at frequency selectivity and can provide sharper roll-off characteristics compared to low-pass filters. On the other hand, ...

The 6 mm2/13 mm2/25 mm2 X 500 µm detectors exhibit “edge effects” due to partial charge collection at the edge of the detector which produce a secondary peak.

Generally, electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength into radio wave, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum (photon) it carries.

RoHS/WEEE Application Alloy Analysis: XRF of SS316, XRF of Ag/Cu XRF of lead (Pb) Metal Plating Process Control XRF of a Saint Gaudens US $20 Gold Coin XRF of a Various Jewelry Glass Analysis Paper Analysis Mössbauer Spectroscopy Multi-Element Fluorescence Sample Low Z Element Fluorescence 241Am Spectrum