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It has a very important role in imaging, as it forms the first magnified image of the sample. The numerical aperture (NA) of the objective indicates its ...

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Theoretically, the maximum angular aperture achievable with a dry (air) microscope objective would be 180 degrees, resulting in a value of 90 degrees for the half angle used in the NA equation. The sine of 90 degrees is one, indicating that the numerical aperture is limited not only by the angular aperture but also by the refractive index of the imaging medium. Most microscope objectives are designed to operate with air (refractive index= 1.0) as the imaging medium between the cover glass and the front lens of the objective. This yields a theoretical maximum NA of 1.00. For practical reasons (available working distance), the highest desirable value for the NA of a dry objective is 0.95 (the half angle of the aperture is approximately 72 degrees). Immersion objectives achieve much higher NAs at the expense of free working distance and spherical aberration sensitivity.

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Objective: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a one of the major causes of death in patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc). In this study, we investigated the impact of updated hemodynamic definition proposed by the 6th PH World Symposium (6th WSPH) on the frequency of PH and its subtypes in patients with SSc.

Methods: Patients with SSc admitted between 2015 and 2019 and who underwent right heart catheterization (RHC) were included. The frequency of PH and its subgroups based on the hemodynamic definitions of both 2015 European Society of Cardiology/European respiratory Society (ESC/ERS) PH guidelines and 6th WSPH was compared.

Results: Of the 65 patients with SSc, 23 (35.4%) had normal mean pulmonary arterial pressure (mPAP), 20 (30.8%) had mildly elevated mPAP (21-24 mm Hg), and 22 (33.8%) had PH [pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) (n=16, 24.6%), group 2 PH (n=5, 7.7%), group 3 PH (n=1, 1.5%)] according to the 2015 ESC/ERS PH definition. Based on the updated criteria, 7 (10.8% of total cohort) additional patients were reclassified as having PH [PAH (n=3), group 2 PH (n=3), group 3 PH (n=1)].

The brightness and resolution of an image formed by an objective at a given magnification increases with its NA value, respectively the diameter of the angular aperture (the angle of the light cone collected by the objective). Light rays emanating from the specimen pass through air (or a liquid-based immersion medium) located between the cover glass and the objective’s front lens. The angular aperture is expressed as the angle between the microscope’s optical axis and the direction of the most oblique light rays captured by the objective (see the tutorial figure). Mathematically, the NA is expressed as:

Conclusion: The impact of the updated definition on the frequency of PH and PAH in our cohort was greater than previously reported, which may be caused by the difference in screening strategies for PAH.

Are you curious about how microscope objectives capture finer object structures to produce higher-resolution images? This foundational knowledge article on Numerical Aperture and Light Cone Geometry will give you a sound understanding of the light gathering ability of microscope objectives and how it is expressed through the numerical aperture (NA). An interactive tutorial allows you to visualize changes in the illumination cone as you vary NA values. You will also learn about the role of the refractive index and the limitations of the maximum achievable NA values.

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The tutorial displays a schematic drawing of a microscope objective. The actual angular aperture of the light cone and the corresponding NA value are indicated in the tutorial window. To operate the tutorial, use the Numerical Aperture slider to change the NA value from low (left) to high (right). As you vary the numerical aperture value with the slider, the size and shape of the illumination cone entering the objective’s front lens is altered. The adjustable NA for this tutorial is 0.03 to 0.95. The approximate objective magnification has also been assigned to each NA value.

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n is the refractive index of the media in the object space (between the cover glass and the objective’s front lens) and θ is half the full angular aperture. The value of n varies between 1.0 for air and 1.58 for most immersion media used in optical microscopy. The angular aperture, which varies with the objective focal length, is the maximum angle of image-forming light rays diffracted by the specimen that the front lens of the objective can capture when the specimen is in focus. As the objective focal length decreases, the maximum angle between the specimen and the outer diameter of the objective front lens increases, causing a proportional increase in the angular aperture. From the above equation, it is obvious that the NA increases with both the angular aperture and the refractive index of the imaging medium.

The light gathering ability of a microscope objective is quantitatively expressed in terms of the numerical aperture (NA). The objective’s NA is a measure of its ability to capture image-forming light rays: Higher NA values allow increasingly oblique rays (representing finer object structures) to enter the front lens of the objective, producing a higher-resolution image with greater specimen detail. This interactive tutorial demonstrates the change in numerical aperture light cones displayed by a microscope objective with corresponding changes in numerical aperture. The angular aperture value corresponding to a given NA-value is also depicted here.

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The fact that a double convex lens is thicker across its middle is an indicator that it will converge rays of light that travel parallel to its principal axis.

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