Another compelling example is the binoculars. Binoculars use a combination of lenses and prisms to magnify distant objects, enabling detailed observation. When you look through binoculars, light rays from the object pass through the objective lens and then the eyepiece lens, effectively magnifying the view.

Application of Er:YAG, Er,Cr:YSGG and CO2 lasers for pulp coagulation has also shown more favorable results after 2 years in comparison with calcium hydroxide.34,36 Studies have indicated that vital pulp therapy and pulp hemostasis after pulpotomy with the help of CO2 laser had 98.1% clinical success and 91.8% radiographic success.34

Let's look at the key properties of a magnifier that enable it to make objects appear bigger. These properties are crucial for various applications, from a jeweller scrutinising a diamond for flaws to a biologist examining the cell structure of a plant.

In optical instruments like telescopes, microscopes and cameras, concave lenses, unlike convex lenses, correct different lens distortions, such as chromatic aberration and spherical aberration. Moreover, they are used as eyepieces in optical instruments to diverge the light rays coming from the objective lens, thus creating a larger image and enhancing the field of view.

Laser irradiation can be used for preservation of pulp vitality. Different wavelengths with 0.5-1 W power, non-concentrated beam, low frequency and pulse mode without water and for durations less than 10 seconds (in order not to cause coagulation) and with 30-second intervals (to prevent over-heating of the pulp) can be useful for this purpose.18

Laser provides an opportunity for safe treatment of periodontal disease in children without causing allergic reactions or bacterial resistance.11 All wavelengths of laser enable gingivectomy, gingivoplasty and operculectomy without the need for local anesthesia and without bleeding.38

The most commonly used lasers in dentistry include holmium yttrium aluminium garnet (HO:YAG), neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG), carbon dioxide laser (CO2), erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Er:YAG), neodymium doped yttrium aluminum perovskite (Nd:YAP), gallium arsenide (GaAs) (diode), erbium, chromium doped yttrium scandium gallium garnet (Er-Cr:YSGG) and argon lasers. Clinical applications of lasers in dentistry include soft and hard tissue surgery, root planning (elimination of calculus from the root surfaces), cavity preparation in the enamel and dentin, detection of dental caries, cleaning the root canal system, etching, caries prevention by changing the crystalline structure of enamel, tooth whitening, periodontal therapy and peri-implantitis treatment.8 Table 1 presents different types of dental lasers and their applications.

While you often experience the magic of magnifiers when you use reading glasses, binoculars, or a camera, it's the underlying principles of physics that make it all possible. These principles can be elaborated upon with concrete examples pertaining to the usage of magnifiers in our daily lives.

Efficient use of laser technology in cleaning and shaping of the root canal system has also been demonstrated. For instance, Er,Cr:YSGG laser has cleaning and shaping efficacy similar to that of rotary instruments and superior to that of hand instruments. Moreover, this laser acts faster than the afore-mentioned 2 techniques.35

A magnifier is a device used to make an object appear larger than its actual size, thereby providing a close-up view. It does this by manipulating the direction of light rays such that they seem to be emanating from a larger object.

To break it down, a lens is a curved piece of glass or plastic that bends light. It's this bending of light, or refraction, that makes objects look bigger or smaller than they actually are. Since we're on the topic of lenses, it's crucial to mention that not all lenses magnify. Only positive or converging lenses (like a convex lens) have this ability.

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In classes, students may perform experiments such as measuring the focal length of a magnifying lens, determining the magnification power, or studying the lens' refractive properties. These practical experiences supplement theoretical learning, making physics more exciting and approachable.

Telescopes, on the other hand, are used to observe distant objects such as stars, planets, and galaxies. An objective lens collects light from distant objects, and an eyepiece lens magnifies the resultant image so we can see the celestial body clearly.

Types oflaser with example

Concave lenses, also known as diverging lenses, diverge light rays to help the eye focus properly on the retina, correcting short-sightedness. They also correct lens distortions and enhance the field of view in optical instruments.

What is the key branch of physics that deals with the properties and behaviours of light, which is integral to the operation of magnifiers?

20231019 — A microscope is an instrument that is used to magnify small objects. Some microscopes can even be used to observe an object at the cellular level.

Trauma to the teeth can have adverse short-term and long-term consequences and may compromise pulp vitality. Laser doppler flowmetry (LDF) indicates the pulp blood flow (PBF) and can be used to assess pulp vitality. This method is accurate, noninvasive, reproducible, reliable and painless and is well tolerated by children. It appears that LDF can also be helpful for monitoring of revascularization and mobile teeth.44

Researchers have also demonstrated that low level laser therapy (LLLT) accelerates orthodontic tooth movement.43 Laser/light emitting diode (LED) can also be used to shorten the course of disease and enhance healing of children suffering from herpetic lesions and primary herpetic stomatitis.11

Types of lasersin physics

Concave lenses, also known as diverging lenses, play an essential role in many optical instruments. This type of lens mainly deflects light rays away from a point, contrary to a convex lens, which converges light rays towards a central focal point. A considerable difference in their functionalities, yet equally crucial in various contexts involving magnification and optics.

Laser technology has been recently introduced to the field of medicine in order to address the diagnostic and therapeutic needs of patients faster and more efficiently.1 The stimulated emission theory discussed by Einstein2 in 1916 later resulted in development of the first working laser by Maiman3 Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.4 Soon after its advent, researchers attempted to use it for dental purposes due to its unique characteristics.5 Since contemporary dentistry is based upon the use of minimally invasive procedures, laser can serve as a favorable alternative to drilling due to having less pain, sound and vibration. Maintaining a dry environment enhances the clinician’s view of the working area and results in a better outcome. Moreover, substitution of sharp dental instruments with laser attracts more patients to dental clinics.6 However, laser therapy has some shortcomings as well such as high cost, difficult accessibility, its dangerous nature if safety measures are not followed, not being applicable in all fields of dentistry, inability to remove metal restorations and thermal damage to soft tissues.7

Let's take the example of a single-lens magnifier like a magnifying glass. You place it close to your eye, then bring the object to focus by slightly moving it back and forth. When the light rays from the object pass through the lens, they get refracted or bent. They then converge at a point (the focal point) and diverge to form an image on your retina.

Why do tiny words suddenly become readable when a magnifying glass passes over them? How do flowers or insects appear so huge and detailed in a picture shot by a macro lens? This is all due to the physics of magnification.

What is the key branch of physics that deals with the properties and behaviours of light, which is integral to the operation of magnifiers?

Enhancement of tooth eruption, elimination of abnormal gingival lesions due to improper tooth movements, treatment of drug-induced gingival hyperplasia, resection of fibroma, aphthous lesions, herpes labialis, mucocele and pyogenic granuloma and also esthetic procedures are among other applications of lasers.14,39

Laser increases the pain threshold of patients and decreases the need for local anesthetics.8,45 Studies have demonstrated that anesthesia can be achieved by application of laser in near infrared wavelengths (803–980 nm) using non-concentrated mode. This effect can be exerted on the pulp and last for 15 minutes by hyperpolarizing the membrane of nerve fibers.18 This technique had a success rate of 50%-75% on primary molar teeth for preparation of class II cavities without anesthetic injection using a 660 nm probe.11

This is where a convex lens comes in. A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges, and when light passes through it, the lens bends the light. This bending causes the light rays to converge or come together, creating a focal point. The intersection of the light rays forms an image on the other side of the lens. With a magnifier (a type of convex lens), when you hold it close to your eye, the lens forms a virtual, magnified, upright image beyond the object itself which allows you to see the object in greater detail.

In digital cameras, a series of lenses magnify the light from the scene, focus it onto a sensor which then converts the light into electrical signals. These electrical signals are processed and converted into an image that we see.

Refraction is when light changes direction as it passes from one medium to another, like air to glass. This is essential in magnification as it makes objects appear larger.

Argon laser at a wavelength of 488 nm (blue-green color) is another diagnostic laser that enables detection of caries particularly in the interproximal and occlusal surfaces with the help of fluorescence property. It is also known as quantitative-light induced fluorescence (QLF).1 It is more efficient in quantitative detection of demineralization in primary teeth compared to permanent teeth.23 Use of QLF enables easy detection of caries beneath the pit and fissure sealants during the routine and periodic examinations.24

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Studies have demonstrated that application of laser alone, without acid etching for preparation of enamel pits and fissures results in a subsequently high rate of microleakage.29 Thus, laser application does not eliminate the need for enamel acid etching.30 On the other hand, some researchers reported that application of laser in conjunction with acid etching resulted in microleakage in 80% of specimens due to the formation of enamel cracks and debris at the sealant-enamel interface. They have recommended the use of argon laser for curing of the sealant material at the enamel-sealant interface to possibly increase enamel resistance to acids.1 However, some other studies found no difference in the amount of microleakage in acid etching with and without laser for preparation of pits and fissures.31 Surface preparation with Er,Cr:YSGG laser prior to fissure sealant application has demonstrated to have no effect on increasing resistance to microleakage in primary teeth.32

Refraction is a physics phenomena where the speed and direction of light change when it moves from one medium to another.

Based on their specific applications, lasers are divided into 4 main groups of solid state lasers, liquid lasers, gas lasers and semi-conductor lasers. Gas lasers have a simpler design compared to other types.13 Relative dispersion of the emitting atoms in gases creates a relatively homogenous environment. These are continuous-wave lasers. The most important characteristic of liquid lasers is their ability to change their frequency. Lightness and high optical output power are among the characteristics of semiconductor lasers explaining their popularity.14

Scientists use a more formal definition for the term 'magnifier'. A magnifier is an optical device that uses a lens or a combination of lenses to produce a magnified image of an object. But not to worry, as daunting as this might sound, all it means is it's a tool that is used to make things appear bigger to the viewer!

Harnessing the power of physics, magnifiers have transitioned from simple devices used for reading to sophisticated tools embedded in advanced technologies. From detailed exploration of moon craters to microorganisms under a microscope, magnifiers assist us in perceiving and understanding our world on drastically different scales.

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Use of 808 nm probe around the root area of traumatized central and lateral incisors in children is considered a successful treatment modality to prevent pulp necrosis.11

In a microscope, objective and eyepiece lenses magnify the tiny specimen so that more details can be observed. This is crucial in fields like biology, where microscopic views are often required to study cells, bacteria and viruses.

CO2 laser can be used for surgical resection of vascular tumors in the oral cavity and gingival enlargement due to the use of cyclosporine. This laser has the advantages of disinfection and coagulation in comparison with surgical scalpel.41,42

Types of lasersand their uses

Finally, consider magnifying glasses, amongst the simplest examples of magnifiers. These are typically handheld devices made of a single convex lens mounted in a frame with a handle. Magnifying glasses function based on the principles of refraction and lens curvature to magnify objects, aiding tasks like reading tiny text or examining intricate details.

Resistance of the tooth surface to penetration of cariogenic agents plays an important role in prevention of caries. Erbium and CO2 lasers can be successfully used to increase resistance of a newly erupted permanent tooth in children and adolescents to acid erosion. Studies have demonstrated that CO2 laser at 9600, 9300 and 10 600 nm wavelengths, erbium laser at 2780 and 2940 nm wavelengths and argon laser can confer resistance to enamel surfaces against caries.25,26 Several studies have demonstrated further increase in tooth resistance by simultaneous application of laser and fluoride therapy. For instance, argon laser in conjunction with acidic phosphate fluoride (APF) causes a 50% decrease in caries depth compared to the use of laser alone.26,27

The antimicrobial effect of erbium laser on the root canal system has also been demonstrated.14 Alveolar socket decontamination following tooth avulsion is another capability of lasers.33

What are the 3types of lasers

Other applications of laser for traumatized teeth include preparation of the broken edge of injured teeth prior to restoration, exposed pulp coagulation, pulpotomy and pulpectomy (with erbium laser) after trauma, if necessary. Moreover, Er:YAG and Er,Cr:YSGG lasers can be used for fusion and sealing of dentinal tubules in case of fractured teeth or open dentinal tubules. By doing so, the permeability of tubules and the consequent tooth hypersensitivity will decrease.33

A convex lens, as already discussed, bulges outwards, bending light towards a common point - the focal point. This function allows it to magnify objects. On the other hand, a concave lens caves inwards and diverges light, making light rays spread out. This doesn't magnify objects; instead, it makes them appear smaller.

Before diving into physics, let us lay a solid foundation about magnifiers. From reading small prints to admiring the intricate details of an insect, magnifiers have proven themselves useful in many ways. But what exactly are they? And how do they work?

The fascinating world of magnifiers encompasses a lot more than just enlarging text or objects. It's about understanding light, lenses, and the inner workings of your eyes. You must grasp these concepts to comprehend the science behind magnifiers.

LLLT of lymph nodes during the eruption of primary or permanent teeth and laser irradiation (4 to 6 J) of exposed primary teeth can effectively decrease pain as well.33 LLLT can also effectively decrease primary inflammatory response47 and 3 to 4 J dose is suitable to decrease pain and swelling in case of trauma to the lips and anterior teeth.33

Interference is the process where two or more waves of light combine to form a resultant wave. Diffraction is the bending of light around edges or through gaps.

Refraction happens when light passes from one medium to another (like from air to glass) causing the light rays to change direction. This change in direction is what helps magnify objects.

Refraction occurs when light passes through the lens, resulting in the convergence of parallel light rays at a focal point, then diverging to form an image on the retina. A similar principle is at work in instruments like cameras, microscopes and telescopes.

Laser technology can be used for pulpotomy, pulpectomy and pulp coagulation as an alternative to formocresol, which is used for pulpotomy of primary teeth and has carcinogenic and mutagenic properties.33 Researchers have reported superior clinical results in pulpotomy of primary teeth with CO2 laser compared to formocresol34 and demonstrated that pulpal inflammation decreased after laser therapy and had a reverse correlation with the amount of energy received.33

Micro-gingival surgery with laser can be done for treatment of traumatic injuries to unerupted teeth.33 Erbium laser enables removal of a part of gingiva covering a cervical carious lesion.18

So, how do magnifiers enlarge our view of the world? It all boils down to light and optics. As you may know, light travels in straight lines. However, when it passes through different mediums, it changes speed and direction. This is the concept of refraction.

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In the following sections, you will learn more about magnifiers. They will increase your understanding of this subject and propel your journey into the realm of physics.

Magnifiers, through their hands-on and visual nature, become critical tools in teaching and learning physics. Understanding their operation and design reinforces the concept of light and its properties, significantly contributing to optics, a fundamental subject in physics.

A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges and bends light that passes through it, causing the light rays to converge and form a magnified image.

Types oflaser PDF

Wave optics is crucial in understanding magnifiers. It is a branch of optics that describes light as a wave and explains phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which cannot be explained through ray optics alone.

A magnifier is a device that makes objects look larger than their actual size by manipulating the direction of light rays. They can use a single lens or a combination of lenses.

Let's take the example of a telescope. The objective lens of a telescope is a large convex lens. The light rays from a distant star are parallel, but when they pass through this lens, they converge at the focal point. The eyepiece or ocular, which is a smaller convex lens, magnifies the image formed by the objective lens. As a result, the star appears larger and closer than it actually is.

Delve into the fascinating world of magnifiers in Physics with this comprehensive guide. You'll have the opportunity to learn about their fundamental properties, their role in enhacing vision, and the influence of wave optics in their function. Understand the integral part convex and concave lenses play in the process of magnification. This guide offers not just theoretical understanding but also practical applications of these concepts, making learning Physics engaging and intuitive. Let's get started on this journey of exploring the intricate workings and applications of magnifiers!

Please cite this article as follows: Nazemisalman B, Farsadeghi M, Sokhansanj M. Types of lasers and their applications in pediatric dentistry: a review. J Lasers Med Sci. 2015;6(3):96-101. doi:10.15171/jlms.2015.01.

However, the theory of geometric optics, which is based on light rays, is sufficient to understand how a magnifying glass works. Wave optics kick-in when we start dealing with objects or apertures that are on the order of the wavelength of light, in which case phenomena like interference and diffraction become significant.

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However, a concave lens could have a role in magnification when used in combination with a convex lens. Certain optical instruments (such as a refracting telescope) use both lens types, where the concave lens serves to adjust the focus and prevent distortion.

By providing a visual and tangible representation of how light and lenses function, magnifiers help convey complex optical principles in a much simpler, engaging, and comprehensible manner. They enable real-world applications of learnt theories, thereby deepening students' understanding and knowledge retention.

CO2 laser can be locally used to relieve pain due to orthodontic forces and LLLT accelerates orthodontic tooth movement with no adverse effect.46,47 Laser/LED irradiation around the orthodontic site or temporomandibular joint has been able to successfully alleviate pain.11

Within magnifiers, we usually use convex lenses. But what about concave lenses? Do they have a role in magnification? To answer this, we must look at the difference between the two lenses.

Consider a compact yet powerful device - the smartphone. The camera lens in a smartphone is a great example of a magnifier. The lens in your smartphone camera magnifies the view, effectively allowing your phone's sensor to capture detailed images. The macro mode on most contemporary smartphones employs additional lenses to act as a magnifying lens, greatly enhancing the close-up details of an object.

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The lens in a smartphone camera magnifies the view, allowing the phone's sensor to capture detailed images. The macro mode uses additional lenses to enhance the close-up details greatly.

It is important to motivate children for dental visits in order to prevent oral and dental conditions. Thus, aside from dental principles, pedodontists must learn the new technologies.13 Laser technology provides an opportunity for more efficient diagnosis and treatment of oral and dental soft and hard tissue conditions in children. Laser therapy is well accepted by the children and parents due to its minimal invasiveness.7 Studies have demonstrated that children are more cooperative during restorative, pulpal and surgical treatments using laser, which significantly promotes the quality of care and enhances the process of treatment. Laser seems to soon become the gold standard in pediatric dentistry.15 Different types of lasers and their applications in pediatric dentistry are as follows:

Correspondence to Mahya Farsadeghi, DDS; School of Dentistry, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran. Tel: 024-33337017; Fax: 024-33445550; mahyafarsadeghi@gmail.com

Er:YAG laser can be used for frenectomy in infants with tight maxillary frenums or for upper and lower frenectomy in infants with severe ankyloglossia.40

Types of lasersin dentistry

The convex lens plays a vital role in magnification. A convex lens bulges outward. It is thicker at the centre than at the edges. When parallel light rays enter a convex lens, they converge or come together at a point known as the focal point. This is what enables magnification.

Laser technology has been recently introduced into the dental field with the idea to replace drilling. Having a less painful first dental experience by the use of modern instruments like laser can be an efficient preventive and therapeutic strategy in pediatric dentistry. Pedodontists need to learn the new less invasive technologies and adopt them in their routine practice. This study aimed to review the available types of lasers and their applications in pediatric dentistry. An electronic search was carried out in IranMedex, InterScience, Scopus, Science Direct, PubMed, ProQuest, Medline and Google Scholar databases to find relevant articles published from 2000 to 2014. Relevant textbooks were reviewed as well. Laser can be used as a suitable alternative to many conventional diagnostic and therapeutic dental procedures. It is especially efficient for caries detection and removal, pulp therapy, lowering the risk of infection, inflammation and swelling and reducing bleeding. On the other hand, due to minimal invasion, laser treatment is well tolerated by children. Improved patient cooperation leads to higher satisfaction of the parents, dentists and the children themselves.

Magnifiers are tools we use in our everyday lives, and they follow the principles of physics! They're everywhere, from the reading glasses in our living rooms to the powerful microscopes in labs, to the binoculars we use for bird watching.

For soft tissue removal and exposure of unerupted teeth for orthodontic purposes, Er,Cr:YSGG, Er,YAG, diode and Nd:YAG lasers are used.48 Erbium laser is efficient for both soft and hard tissue ablation. But, there is always a risk of enamel damage at the surgical site. However, this risk is nonexistent if diode or Nd:YAG lasers are used due to their specific wavelengths.49

Types of lasersfor skin

LF at a wavelength of 655 nm (nonablative with red light) can be used as an adjunct for disclosing occlusal caries in primary and permanent teeth and due to its high reliability, predictability and reproducibility, it decreases diagnostic errors.17,18 DIAGNOdent is a commercial product using LF technology. An in vitro study demonstrated its superior efficacy for disclosing occlusal dentin caries in primary teeth in comparison to visual inspection, probing and radiography.19 Some previous studies have reported equal or higher accuracy of LF and bitewing radiography for detection of caries and cavitation of primary teeth in proximal areas.20,21 However, its efficient performance depends on the depth of carious lesion. It can more accurately detect dentin compared to enamel caries and does not have much efficacy for detection of initial enamel caries and tooth demineralization.22

Accurate detection of caries helps the clinicians suitably restore the tooth in shorter time and with less cost. Studies have demonstrated that laser fluorescence (LF) can enhance the accuracy and speed of clinical detection of caries.16,17

Laser was first used for soft tissue incision. But, the new generation of lasers with their special function on water molecules can be used for ablation of dental hard tissue as well. Due to recent advances in laser applications in most dental fields, it is now efficiently used for caries prevention, diagnosis and treatment.8

Soft tissue trauma, facial wounds and swelling can also be alleviated by the application of laser/LED to the area. This method can also be used in severely traumatized areas to decrease post-traumatic discomfort.11

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How manytypes oflaser

Pedodontists try to create a pleasant memory of the first dental visit for children by using novel, minimally invasive technologies to help the child establish good dental habits.9 Having a less painful first dental experience through the use of a modern technology like laser would be an efficient preventive and therapeutic strategy. Laser can be successfully used for diagnosis of oral and dental conditions, treatment of the hard and soft tissues and prevention of rapidly progressive oral and dental conditions in children.10

It's indispensable to discuss magnifiers without touching on the subject of optics, a key branch of physics dealing with the properties and behaviours of light. Optical theories are integral to the operations of magnifiers and have increasingly come into play in their real-world implementations.

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In May 16, 1960, laser was developed by Theodore Maiman3 using a synthetic ruby crystal. The first application of laser was for the diagnosis and treatment of skin conditions. Later, it was used for endoscopic surgery and then in ophthalmology.11 The first application of laser in dentistry was for oral soft tissue surgery.12 Laser served as a scalpel by cutting or ablating the tissue using the energy of laser light. Its mechanism of action is via intensified light generated by the stimulation of a synthetic material inside a light chamber. The energy is emitted uniformly and continuously towards the target organ without directly contacting it.6 Lasers are often named after their active medium generating photons. Dental lasers have variable wavelengths and run in continuous-wave, pulsed or running pulsed mode. Wavelengths in the range of 193-10600 nm are applicable in medicine and dentistry. The wavelength of laser determines its clinical application and type of laser device.12

A lens, especially a convex or converging lens, bends or refracts light, making objects seem larger or smaller than they are.

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Articles from Journal of Lasers in Medical Sciences are provided here courtesy of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences

Laser can also be used for tooth surface preparation prior to the application of pit and fissure sealants. Laser can be applied for conditioning, cleaning and disinfection of pits and fissures as well.28 For instance, after ensuring the presence of caries in pits and fissures based on the obtained LF values (between 11–20 to 21–30), erbium laser can be used for fissurotomy and elimination of caries. LF values between 0-10 indicate sound tooth; in this condition, only macro-roughening is performed by erbium laser at lower wavelengths.18

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Considering the importance of oral and dental health in physical health status of children, this study aimed to review different types of lasers and their applications in pediatric dentistry.

Laser technology has beneficial antimicrobial effects as well. An in vitro study demonstrated elimination of 99% of the bacteria in collagen matrix by the application of diode laser via the photo-activated bacterial disinfection (PAD) method during root canal therapy and caries removal.20 However, cleaning and disinfecting the primary root canal system require utmost precision due the complex anatomy of the apex. Special attention must be paid to the penetration depth of laser, which is close to infrared light.33

The most prevalent application of concave lenses in physics is their use in eyeglasses to correct short-sightedness or myopia. A concave lens diverges light rays, helping the eye focus light on the retina properly, thus improving vision for distant objects.

However, other studies on lasers such as Nd:YAG laser for pulpotomy of primary teeth have reported 71.42% clinical and 85.71% radiographic success during 12 months, and appear to be unsuccessful in comparison with formocresol with a clinical and radiographic success rate of 90.47% during the same time period.37

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Considering all the aforementioned, laser can be a suitable alternative for many conventional procedures in pediatric dentistry. Diagnosis and removal of caries, pulp therapy, decreasing the risk of infection, swelling and inflammation, reducing bleeding, enhancing soft tissue healing, pain relief and reducing gag reflex are among the applications of laser in pediatric dentistry. Children are often more cooperative when laser is used for dental treatments due to its minimal invasiveness. This results in higher satisfaction of children and their parents and increases the quality of service. Due to the diversity of this subject, further studies are required on the efficacy of laser application for dental procedures particularly in pediatric dentistry.

Be it a simple magnifying glass or a highly sophisticated electron microscope, the underlying principles remain the same. Both function based on concepts related to refraction, the bending of light that arises due to its speed change when moving from one medium to another.