Nonlinear distortion

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With linear distortion, on the other hand, the signal is not fundamentally altered. This means that no additional frequencies are added. Instead, the sound produced differs from the pure audio signal due to changes in wave amplitude or phase. This can lead to the cancelling of certain frequencies or increased volume levels for others. It is not, however, the type of distortion that “colours” the sound.

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There are two basic types of distortion. Non-linear distortion describes the ways in which an outgoing audio signal differs from the ingoing signal. The frequencies present in the outgoing sound that are not given in the incoming audio signal are, quite simply, elements of distortion that entered along the way. Note that all amplifiers produce non-linear distortion as no electronic device is capable of reproducing a pure signal without adding harmonics. Diodes, transistors and amplifiers will all contribute to slight distortions.

By switching up the configuration of your lenses, you can achieve a wide range of microscope magnification. A standard microscope eyepiece magnifies an object 10x. However, you can find eyepieces that magnify 15x, 20x and even 30x or higher. This presents a plethora of options in terms of combining the ocular and objective lenses to reach the perfect point of magnification. To adjust the magnification, simply switch out the ocular and/or the objective lenses until you find the ideal combination for viewing your sample or slide. Remember, the highest magnification is not always the best, as compound light microscopes can really only magnify up to a certain point before the images lose clarity and become unreliable.

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In order to understand harmonic distortion, we first need to cover the concept of harmonics. The pitch of a tone is determined by the what is known as the “fundamental tone” or simply “fundamental“. This is the loudest and lowest frequency in a periodic waveform which can be defined as a series of waves that form as multiples of a fundamental tone. For instance, if the fundamental is 100 Hz, the next wave that forms in a periodic waveform will be 200 Hz. This is called the first overtone in relation to the original fundamental. It’s also called the second harmonic — which can be a little confusing. Basically, the number for the harmonic is simply one up from the overtone. The second overtone/third harmonic for our 100 Hz fundamental will be 300 Hz, etc.

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When a certain note is played on the piano, say middle C, the middle C is the fundamental but that is not all we hear. We also hear all the overtones that vibrate along with the middle C. Their sound will be softer, yet will contribute to the piano’s distinctive sound. Clarinets, for instance, sound like clarinets because the sound they produce contains dd harmonics with larger amplitudes ocompared to the even harmonics produced. The odd overtones are therefore more easily perceived by the human ear and give the clarinet it reedy, slightly plaintive sound.

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Compound light microscopes are relatively easy-to-use machines, as long as you take care of them properly and understand the basics of magnification. Through the wide variety of ocular and objective lens combinations, you can visualize whole worlds in a slide, and maybe even make some surprising discoveries. Understanding the basics of microscope magnification can enable you to use this common piece of lab equipment to your best advantage.

A recording will contain fundamental tones and their surrounding harmonics from the recorded voices and instruments it contains. The trick is not to add to these harmonics, yet this can easily happen as the audio signal is processed. A measurement called Total Harmonic Distortion indicates the difference between the harmonics present in the outgoing signal produced by an amp compared to the pure incoming signal. Tube amps are famous for their warm sound, an effect they produce by creating many even-order harmonics. This means more 2nd, 4th and 6th harmonics as opposed to 3rd, 5th and 7th which are more present in solid state amps.

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Simply put, magnification refers to how much an object is visually enlarged when observed under a microscope. It’s usually represented in terms of x–for instance, 2x, 10x and 20x mean that the observable object appears to be twice as big, 10 times as big or 20 times as big when viewed through the microscope eyepiece. Like all things, even your microscope’s magnification has limits. Analog microscopes that use light and mirrors to magnify objects usually max out at about 1,500x magnification. This is because light wavelengths cause the image to appear unclear at that magnitude of magnification. Electron microscopes, however, can produce images that exhibit impressive clarity all the way up to 200,000x magnification since electrons have much shorter wavelengths.

Knowing how to measure and adjust your microscope are the building blocks for microscopy skills. But what other factors can affect how you view your sample? For starters, make sure the stage is all the way down and locked into place. The stage is the flat surface on which you rest your slide or sample for viewing. If it isn’t in a fixed position, you may have a hard time bringing your image into focus. When using the coarse adjustment knob to move the lenses up and down, or further away and closer to your objective, make sure you do not bring the lenses close enough to touch the slide. This could result in something as simple as bumping the slide and having to refocus, or as impactful as actually crushing your sample. As with any laboratory equipment, proceed carefully and with caution to prevent any unnecessary lab mishaps.

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Anyone interested in hi-fi will have heard of distortion. Many amplifiers, for instance, are marketed with claims of a low distortion factor or low levels of something called Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). In the following article, we’ll examine the causes of distortion, define the basic types and the extent to which distortion effects music playback.

Most compound light microscopes have two types of lenses–the ocular lens and the objective lens. The ocular lens is the lens on the eyepiece. The objective lens is the lens closest to the object or slide being observed. Most microscopes have a rotating disc with at least three objective lenses attached, so the observer can choose an appropriate magnification. In order to measure the total magnification, you must calculate the product of the ocular lens and the objective lens. To do this, record the magnification of the ocular lens in the eyepiece and record the magnification of the objective lens (these numbers are usually engraved on the sides of both types of lenses). Next, multiply the ocular lens magnification by the objective lens magnification. This will give you the total magnification. For instance, if you are using an ocular lens with 10x magnification and an objective lens with 50x magnification, your total magnification is 500x.

Non-harmonic distortion like clipping is the result of additional frequencies being added to the signal which are not multiples of the fundamental tone. Since its relationship is not proportionate, it’s not harmonious in a mathematical or aesthetic sense. The non-harmonic distortion of an over-driven solid state amp is very much a part of the sound of heavy metal as well as some electronic and experimental genres. Clipping chops off the tops of the sine waves in the audio signal resulting in a very harsh sound. This effect is more difficult to pull from tube amps with their harmonious dominant second harmonics. Non-harmonic distortion can be used for interesting effects in certain types of music in which case it will actually be a part of the pure audio signal, but it is definitely not something that should be added to the signal by the audio gear used to process it.

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In many disciplines, the microscope is a scientist’s best friend. It’s the trusty sidekick that provides insight, clarity and new perspectives as you dive into uncharted territory. We interact with microscopes so often that operating them can become sheer muscle memory, and we no longer think about why we use them as we do. In this article, we’ll take a step back to reacquaint ourselves with the basic tenets of microscope magnification.