Nosepiecemicroscope function

Eyepiece or Ocular is what you look through at the top of the microscope. Typically, standard eyepieces have a magnifying power of 10x. Optional eyepieces of varying powers are available, typically from 5x-30x.

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Body tubemicroscope function

Jul 28, 2015 — The farther you move the lens from the image plane—a longer focal length—the less the light needs to bend to intersect at the image plane. This ...

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Stage is where the specimen to be viewed is placed. A mechanical stage is used when working at higher magnifications where delicate movements of the specimen slide are required.

Iris Diaphragm controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. It is located above the condenser and below the stage. Most high quality microscopes include an Abbe condenser with an iris diaphragm. Combined, they control both the focus and quantity of light applied to the specimen.

Armmicroscope function

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Condensermicroscope function

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A high power or compound microscope achieves higher levels of magnification than a stereo or low power microscope. It is used to view smaller specimens such as cell structures which cannot be seen at lower levels of magnification. Essentially, a compound microscope consists of structural and optical components. However, within these two basic systems, there are some essential components that every microscopist should know and understand. These key microscope parts are illustrated and explained below.

Stagemicroscope function

Objective lensmicroscope function

Eyepiece Tube holds the eyepieces in place above the objective lens. Binocular microscope heads typically incorporate a diopter adjustment ring that allows for the possible inconsistencies of our eyesight in one or both eyes. The monocular (single eye usage) microscope does not need a diopter. Binocular microscopes also swivel (Interpupillary Adjustment) to allow for different distances between the eyes of different individuals.

Objective Lenses are the primary optical lenses on a microscope. They range from 4x-100x and typically, include, three, four or five on lens on most microscopes. Objectives can be forward or rear-facing.

Bulk strainChanges in volume / Original volume (dV/Vo) Bulk stressChange in pressure / Area (dP/A) ChamfersChamfers are usually required both to protect the work from chipping during polishing and also in use. Chamfers are normally 45º and measured along the flat of the chamfer. Protective chamfers are usually referred to as 'break-edge' and are typically 0.25mm. They are regarded as uncritical and often removed by the polishing process.  Cosmetic FinishDespite more recent sophisticated methods of classification this is still commonly specified by the traditional method of Scratch & Dig. This tries to classify the surface in terms of the maximum length of small scratches left after polishing. Under this classification S/D 80/60 would be regarded as quite poor and appropriate to simple spectroscopic windows, while S/D 20/10 is a quite exacting standard suitable for low scattering laser applications. Inevitably assessment of S/D tends to err on the conservative side; 60/40 being a normal routine finish. Click here for more details on recent developments pioneered by Crystran resulting in a sophisticated algorithm based measuring system. Design of Pressure WindowsThe calculation of minimum thickness of a window to withstand a pressure gradient should be approached with caution. The published figures for apparent elastic limit, flexural strength, or rupture modulus may be used but it should be realised that these three terms relate to different methods of test. Further, the published data should not be considered absolute as theses samples from which the original data was obtained may not be representative of all samples of crystal. A conservative safety factor should always be applied to the minimum calculated thickness therefore. Access our data sheet on this here Elastic CoefficientsElastic coefficients, otherwise known as Elastic Stiffness Constants are the constants of proportionality between the components of stress and strain. They are therefore related to the elastic moduli.These coefficients are designated by the term Chk where h and k are integers between 1 and 6.For cubic crystals the coefficients are C11, C12, C44For tetragonal crystals, five, C11, C12, C13, C33, C44For hexagonal crystals, six, C11, C12, C13, C14, C33, C44The three moduli relate to these coefficients as follows:Youngs modulus = E = (C11 + 2C12) (C11 - C12) / (C11 + C12)Bulk modulus = K = (C11 + 2C12) / 3Shear modulus = G = C44 Elastic ModuliThe deformation of a material can be quantified by expressing it in terms of the elastic modulus. If deformations are small, the material will retain memory and return to original shape when the pressure or stress causing the deformation has been removed. Robert Hooke, a founder member of the Royal Society, discovered that the deformation of a material was proportional to the load or force applied and this was formulated as Hooke's Law.An elastic modulus is defined as Stress/Strain. FlatnessFlatness is specified in terms of the wavelength of light, eg Lambda/2 at 633nm, which represents the degree of power, with sometimes a form-error addition, eg Lambda/5 at 633nm, which defines the allowed irregularity of the fringe pattern. Polishing flat to 1 fringe normally assumes sodium light or HeNe laser and corresponds to a deviation of about 0.25 microns. The wavelength should always be stated.NOTE: 1 Fringe = Lambda/2 Hardness ScalesHardness is a well known physical parameter, but many different methods have been derived for the measurement and classification of materials on a hardness scale. The Knoop scale is the most commonly used, the others being; Moh, Vickers, Rockwell and Brinell.The experimental procedure for the derivation of a value on the Knoop scale is to use a pyramidal diamond point which is pressed into the material in question with a known force. The indentation made by the point is then measured and the Knoop number calculated from this measurement. The test has been designed for use on a surface that has not been work-hardened in the lattice direction in which the hardness value is being measured.The value of the Knoop number varies slightly with the indenter load as well as with the temperature. A material which is soft, i.e. potassium bromide, would have a Knoop number of 4, whereas a hard material like sapphire has a Knoop number of 2000 and the Knoop number for diamond is 7000.The values on the Moh scale are arrived at by measuring the relative hardness of materials by observing which materials are able to scratch other materials. The Moh scale, which is not linear, is limited by the softest material Talc (Moh=1) and the hardest material Diamond (Moh=10).The Vickers scale is determined by pressing a pyramidal indenter into the material in question and dividing the indenter load (in kg) by the pyramidal area of the indenter (in mm2).Rockwell and Brinell hardness are not often quoted. The Rockwell figures for materials are relative to a specific measuring instrument and the Brinell hardness is analogous to the Vickers scale except that a spherical indenter is used. LensesLenses involve variations on the specifications above. "Flatness" translates into a matter of a match of the radius of curvature to a reference standard known as a "test-plate" while "Parallelism" can still be measured as a "run-out" but is more commonly specified as a centration error.  Metrological LasersHeNe Laser = 0.6328µm CO2 Laser = 10.640µm Normal Atmospheric PressureTraditionally measured in:(1) pounds/sq inch 14.7psi(2) inches of mercury 29.9213"(3) mm of mercury 760mm(4) millibars 1013.240mBarNow measured in SI units:(5) Pascals 101.324kPa (2) and (3) are straightforward measures of a column of mercury supported by 1 atmosphere: 1" = 25.4mm(4) and (5) are actual measures of pressure (force/area) and take account of the density of mercury (13.595g/cc at 0ºC) and the acceleration due to gravity (980.665 cm/sec2) when converting from a mercury barometer reference. Pressure at 1 atm = 0.76m x 13595 kgm.m-3 x 9.80665 m . S-1Pressure at 1 atm = 101324 Pa (N/m2)(m-1.kgm.s-1)Pressure at 1 atm = 101.324kPa Optic AxisAll crystalline materials, except those which belong to the cubic structure class, are anisotropic. These crystals possess different physical properties in different directions of measurement. In anisotropic crystals there is a single direction which is an axis of symmetry with respect to both the crystal form and the arrangement of atoms in the lattice. This axis of symmetry is called the Optic Axis. If any physical property of the material, thermal conductivity for example, is measured in different directions, it is found to have a value particular to that direction. If measured along any line perpendicular to the optic axis the value of the physical property will change as the direction of measurement changes, reaching a maximum or minimum along the optic axis. Birefringence (double refraction) in uniaxial crystals disappears when light is made to travel along the optic axis, as there is no separation of the E-ray and the O-ray. This birefringent property of uniaxial crystals gives rise to phenomena of polarisation when the E and O rays are polarised in perpendicular planes. ParallelismParallelism of a window can be specified in terms of angle, usually as minutes of arc. Sometimes it is in terms of thickness variation or "run-out". With conventional polishing techniques where no particular control of this parameter is involved, parallelism of less than 10 to 20 arcminutes can be expected. Where double sided techniques are involved, parallelism obtained are usually not measurable by normal methods. In some cases, to avoid multiple reflections between the faces, a small wedge angle may actually be specified. Reflection LossWhen light is incident upon a dielectric interface, part of it is reflected. The reflection loss is a ration usually specified as a percentage of the original intensity. The loss is a function of the refractive index (n) of the material, the state of polarisation and the angle of incidence of the light. The reflection loss, from one surface, of un-polarised light, normally incident upon a surface is given by:Reflection Loss = (n - 1)2 / (n + 1)2 For transparent materials, reflections from the second surface must be considered. Taking into account the possible multiple internal reflections, the internal transmittance of a parallel plate is given by:Transmittance = 2n / (n2 + 1) Reflection loss decreases as the angle of incidence increases. Normal incidence being the condition for minimum reflection loss. ReststrahlenThe Reststrahlen (residual rays) effect, occurs notably in the 6µm to 300µm range. For many inorganic materials used in optical applications, the refractive index remains constant and the absorption coefficient is zero or very small, over the majority of its transmission range. When Reststrahlen materials are illuminated at wavelengths that excite the atomic, or crystal lattice structure, a number of quite dramatic resonance effects are noticed. As the Reststrahlen maximum frequency is approached the refractive index (n) undergoes a rapid change, the extinction coefficient (k) rises rapidly and the Fresnel reflection coefficient (R) may become quite high. Therefore, at Reststrahlen maximum frequency of the particular material in question, the reflectance of that material rises sharply. R = ((n - 1)2 + k2)/ ((n + 1)2 + k2) In the 6 to 300µm region where the Reststrahlen effects seem to be most prominent, there are not many satisfactory filters. Hence the Reststrahlen effect is often used for the extraction of a narrow spectral region from a spectral continuum.In practical applications some properties of Reststrahlen materials are quite significant. Particularly the fact that the maximum reflectance increases as the temperature is reduced and when used as thin films as coatings on mirrors and lenses, they exhibit interference maxima and minima, on the short wavelength side of their reflectance peaks.  TransmissivityInternal Transmittance per unit thickness TransmittanceIntensity of exit beam / Intensity of incident beam (le / lo)Transmittance is usually expressed as a percentage. Wave Number1/wavelength (cm) = 10000 / wavelength (µm)

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To disperse light into its spectrum Sir. Isaac Newton used a prism. However, in recent years the diffraction grating has replaced the prism for this purpose ...

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Diopter adjustmentmicroscope function

Basemicroscope function

Nosepiece houses the objectives. The objectives are exposed and are mounted on a rotating turret so that different objectives can be conveniently selected. Standard objectives include 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x although different power objectives are available.

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Stage Clips are used when there is no mechanical stage. The viewer is required to move the slide manually to view different sections of the specimen.

Coarse and Fine Focus knobs are used to focus the microscope. Increasingly, they are coaxial knobs - that is to say they are built on the same axis with the fine focus knob on the outside. Coaxial focus knobs are more convenient since the viewer does not have to grope for a different knob.

A Fresnel light is a highly versatile and controllable light that can be used as both a spot and a flood. Here's what you need to know about it.

Optics DefinitionsAbsorbancelog10 (Io / Ie) Example: 20% transmittance is log10 (100 / 20) = 0.7 absorbance. AbsorptanceIntensity absorbed beam / Intensity incident beam = Complement of transmittance (Io - Ie) / Io Bulk Modulus (K)This relates to changes in total volume of material.

Condenser is used to collect and focus the light from the illuminator on to the specimen. It is located under the stage often in conjunction with an iris diaphragm.

Illuminator is the light source for a microscope, typically located in the base of the microscope. Most light microscopes use low voltage, halogen bulbs with continuous variable lighting control located within the base.