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Photography has the magical capacity to preserve a moment in time. Key to this is the image sensor at the heart of every digital camera. Just as the retina in the human eye captures light and translates it into nerve impulses that the brain can interpret, the sensor captures light and converts it into an electrical signal that is then processed to form a digital image. Here, we take a look at how image sensors work, and explore the different types of image sensors used in Canon cameras. Digital imaging basics CCD sensors CMOS sensors Developments in CMOS sensors DGO sensors The SPAD sensor Sensor sizes explained

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The camera's specially developed full-frame CMOS sensor is designed specifically for low light video capture. With larger photo receptors, it maximises light-gathering capabilities to deliver ultra-low-light images with low noise.

Gamaya is a data analytics company that empowers farmers with unprecedented in-depth understanding of their lands and crops using unique hyperspectral imaging and artificial intelligence. Gamaya is one of the first commercial company that makes hyperspectral imaging accessible for commercial applications, such as precision agriculture, at the cost comparable to multispectral imaging. The hyperspectral camera, developed by Gamaya, is not our primary goal. Our core expertise is in the analysis and interpretation of hyperspectral data using artificial intelligence to produce the information about the plant physiology.

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There are several different types of image sensor. Digital photography arrived in the mid-1980s with the introduction of CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) sensors. These sensors were the first to make it possible to capture images without the use of film, revolutionising photography. CCD sensors are composed of an integrated grid of semiconductor capacitors capable of holding an electrical charge. When light reaches the sensor, these capacitors, acting as individual photosites, absorb the light and convert it into an electrical charge. The amount of charge at each photosite is directly proportional to the intensity of the light that strikes it. In a CCD sensor, the charge from each photosite is transferred through the sensor's grid (hence the term charge-coupled) and read at one corner of the array, in the same way that water might be passed along a bucket brigade or human chain. This method ensures a high degree of image quality and uniformity because each pixel uses the same pathway to output its signal. For this reason, Canon's first professional digital camera, the EOS-1D, launched in 2001, had a 4.15MP CCD sensor. However, this process is also more power-intensive than the process in CMOS sensors.

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1/1.28sensorsize

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CCD and CMOS sensors measure the intensity of light – in other words, how many photons reach the sensor within a specified time. SPAD (Single Photon Avalanche Diode) sensors work differently, using the "avalanche" effect in semiconductors. When a photon strikes the sensor, it generates an electron, which then triggers a chain reaction or "avalanche" of electron production. This cascading effect causes a large current to flow instantaneously, which is read out as a voltage signal in the form of a train of pulses corresponding to individual photons. This unique light-sensing technology means SPAD sensors can achieve incredible low-light performance. Using the outstanding SPAD sensor, Canon has developed the MS-500, a breakthrough interchangeable-lens camera capable of capturing high-definition colour footage in extremely low-light conditions, even the near-total darkness of a night-time environment.

There are different sensor types and sizes, as well as different technologies such as this DGO (Dual Gain Output) sensor in the Canon EOS C70 video camera. But in all digital still and video cameras, the sensor is the key component in capturing an image.

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How cameras create a digital image. Light from the subject you're shooting is focused through the lens onto the image sensor (2), which is covered with a mosaic filter (1) to enable it to detect colour and not just light intensity. The electrical signal generated by the sensor may be amplified by analogue electronics (3) before passing through an analogue-to-digital converter (4) to the image processor (5). After processing, the camera may temporarily hold images in a buffer (6) while it writes them to the memory card.

Phonecamera sensorsize

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Gamaya provides the world’s most advanced solution for diagnostics of farmland using a unique constellation of patented hyperspectral imaging technology, drone-based deployment and artificial intelligence. Gamaya farmland analytics solution improves production efficiency and risk management by facilitating optimised usage of chemicals and fertilisers, as well as reducing disease and weed-related losses. Some of the information services that we provide for soybean, corn and sugarcane include the detection and diagnostics of crop diseases, classification of weeds, optimization of fertilization, identification of crop varieties, as well as prediction of yield.

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Digitalcamera image sensor sizes

Another important difference between multispectral and hyperspectral imagery is the ability to use AI and machine learning, facilitated by the high informational content of hyperspectral data. This allows to continually improve existing products and develop new products. Multispectral imaging technology lacks the information richness to enable continual development. Therefore, hyperspectral imaging is positioned to become a main remote sensing technology used on a global scale for various agricultural applications.

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If two sensors have the same total pixel count but one is physically larger than the other, then each photosite on the larger one must be bigger. This is sometimes included in camera specs as the "pixel pitch" – a 21MP APS-C camera might have a pixel pitch of about 4.22 microns while a 21MP full-frame camera might be 6.45 microns. Photosites act as "light buckets" and, in the same way that a wider bucket would capture more rainwater than a narrower bucket, a larger photosite captures more photons (shown in yellow) with relatively less random noise (grey).

Nikoncamera image sensor sizes

To sum up, hyperspectral imaging is the most information-rich source of spectral data and provides multiple benefits over multispectral imagery to address different farming issues, such as detection of diseases, pests, NPK deficiencies, identification of weeds and other. Precision agriculture requires more than RGB information or multispectral imagery, and currently the hyperspectral imaging is the most advanced technology for remote sensing applications.

Higher spectral resolution of the hyperspectral imaging predetermines the high information content of the hyperspectral data, which is 10 times higher than NDVI. As hyperspectral imaging allows to identify unique physiological crop traits, it becomes possible to identify crop diseases, pests and nutrient deficiencies, due to ability to correlate spectral signature with changes in the plant physiology. Hyperspectral imaging can identify and classify different type of weeds, wild vegetation and crop varieties, due to the fact that each specie of vegetation and variety of crop has its unique spectral signature.

In addition, the MS-500's bayonet mount for a 2/3-inch broadcast lens enables the camera to utilise Canon's extensive range of broadcast lenses, with their excellent super-telephoto optical performance. This means the camera is able to resolve subjects several kilometres away, even if they are unlit, making it an invaluable asset for security, surveillance and a broad range of scientific applications.

A 1.0-type CMOS sensor. CMOS sensors of this size are used in compact cameras such as the Canon PowerShot G7 X Mark III and video cameras such as the Canon XF605 professional 4K camcorder.

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If you're shooting RAW, this data is saved, along with information about the camera settings, in a RAW file. If the camera is set to save images in any other file format – JPEG, HEIF or RAW+JPEG – then further processing takes place in-camera, which typically includes white balance adjustment, sharpening and noise reduction, among other processes, depending on the camera settings. It will also include demosaicing or debayering, which cleverly calculates the correct RGB colour value for each pixel (each individual photosite, remember, records only one colour – red, green or blue). The end result is a complete colour digital image – although, in truth, if the image is a JPEG, more of the original information captured by the sensor has been discarded than has been kept. You conventionally hear about the number of megapixels (millions of pixels) in a sensor, but strictly speaking the sensor does not have pixels at all, but sensels (distinct photosites). What's more, there is not a one-to-one correspondence between sensels in the sensor and pixels in the resulting digital image, for a whole range of technical reasons. It is more accurate to describe a sensor as having a certain number of "effective pixels", which simply means that the camera produces images or videos of that number of megapixels. The Canon PowerShot V10, for example, has a sensor described as approximately 20.9MP in "total pixels" but some of the sensor data is used for technical processes such as distortion correction and digital image stabilisation, with the result that the PowerShot V10 delivers video (with Movie Digital IS) at approximately 13.1MP and still images (which undergo different processes) at approximately 15.2MP.

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1/2.3sensorsize vs 1 inch

CMOS sensors come in different sizes. A full-frame sensor has approximately 1.6x the active surface area of an APS-C sensor.

The choice of sensor size depends largely on your shooting requirements and budget. Each sensor size offers distinct advantages, and understanding these can help you select the right camera for your specific needs. However, you can see why standardising on "effective pixels" provides a simpler measure for comparing different cameras and different technologies!

Canon’s DGO sensor works by reading each pixel at two different amplification levels, one high and one low, and then combining these two readouts into a single image. The high amplification readout is optimised to capture fine details in shadow regions while reducing noise. The low amplification readout is designed to maintain and accurately reproduce information in the highlights. Combining these produces an image that has a broader dynamic range, retains more detail and exhibits less noise compared to images from conventional sensor technologies. The DGO technology does not consume any more power than a conventional sensor, and is also compatible with Canon's Dual Pixel CMOS AF system and electronic image stabilisation, delivering fast, reliable autofocus and a super-steady image.

It's clear that a sensor's megapixel count (whether it's total or effective pixels) isn't the whole story. The physical size of the sensor is an important factor. APS-C sensors are physically smaller than full-frame sensors, which means that even if the pixel counts are identical, a camera with a full-frame sensor should deliver a wider dynamic range and better low-light performance – if it has the same megapixel count but over a larger area, then it has larger photosites, which will be capable of capturing more light. This makes full-frame cameras such as the EOS R3 and EOS R5 a favourite choice for professionals, particularly those shooting landscapes, architecture or portraits. Conversely, because APS-C sensors are smaller, your subject will fill more of the frame than it would if you used the same lens with the same settings on a full-frame camera – so in effect, an APS-C sensor increases the reach of your lens. In Canon cameras, the "crop factor" is approximately 1.6x, giving you an effective focal length 1.6x greater than the same lens on a full-frame camera. This gives a 50mm lens, for example, the field of view of an 80mm lens (50 x 1.6 = 80). This means APS-C cameras are well suited for a broad range of uses including wildlife and street photography. In addition, thanks to the smaller sensor, APS-C cameras such as the EOS R50 and EOS R10 are smaller and lighter than their full-frame counterparts, making them a great option for travel or nature shoots. Some video cameras use Super 35mm sensors (active area approximately 24.6 x 13.8mm, depending on the resolution setting), which are slightly larger than APS-C (22.2 x 14.8mm) but still less than half the area of full-frame (36 x 24mm). They are widely used in the film industry thanks to their balance between cost, image quality and cinematic look (with a shallow depth of field). Camcorders and other camera types use a range of other sensor sizes, such as the 20.1MP 1.0-type stacked CMOS sensor in the compact PowerShot G7 X Mark III and the 11.7MP 1/2.3 CMOS sensor in the PowerShot PX.

Sensorsize chart

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In 2000, Canon introduced its first CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) sensor, in the 3.1MP EOS D30. Unlike the CCD sensor, which transfers charges across the sensor to a single output node, a CMOS sensor contains multiple transistors at each photosite, enabling the charge to be processed directly at the site. This has several implications. For a start, CMOS sensors require less power, making them more energy efficient. They can also read off electrical charges at a much faster rate, which is crucial for shooting high-speed sequences. What's more, CMOS sensors share the same basic structure as computer microprocessors, which allows for mass production at a lower cost while incorporating additional functions such as noise reduction and image processing right on the sensor. All of Canon's current PowerShot, EOS and Cinema EOS camera ranges feature CMOS sensors, including the mirrorless EOS R System line.

The DGO (Dual Gain Output) sensor is an advanced image sensor used in the Canon EOS C300 Mark III and EOS C70 professional video cameras.

The most common type of colour filter mosaic in digital sensors, a Bayer array. This is what makes it possible for the sensor to detect colour, not just light intensity. There are more photosites dedicated to green because the human eye happens to be more sensitive to green light than to blue or red.

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Camera image sensor sizescomparison

The stacked, back-illuminated CMOS sensor in the Canon EOS R3 is designed for capturing high-speed and high-resolution imagery.

Gamaya is a Swiss-based company that develops crop intelligence platform to address crop and region specific issues to increase efficiency and sustainability of farming businesses.

The spectral resolution is the main factor that distinguishes hyperspectral imagery from multispectral imagery. Based on spectral responses, hyperspectral imagery captures more narrow bands than multispectral in the same portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The advantage of a higher spectral resolution gives ability to distinguish between different crop characteristics, which in turn provides ability to address more and much more complicated farming issues. The greater/finer detail in a scene, the more likely unique crop characteristics and physiological traits are to be defined.

The table below reveals the main differences between multispectral and hyperspectral imaging, highlighting the ability to address specific agricultural applications.

Hyperspectral imagery has been available for 20–30 years, but it’s been an extremely expensive exercise constructing the equipment, hiring developers, and analyzing the terabytes of data, so has mainly been used by large research institutes (Carnegie Airborne Observatory, ETHZ, etc.), space agencies and the military. Below we would like to compare multispectral vs hyperspectral imaging and clarify what are the real benefits of hyperspectral imaging in agriculture.

In Canon's Dual Pixel CMOS AF system, each photo receptor in the sensor has two separate photodiodes (marked A and B), and comparing the signals from the two determines whether that point is in sharp focus. At the same time, the output (C) from the photo receptor is used for imaging.

As seen from the table, multispectral imagery is largely limited to enabling analysis based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NVDI) and cannot, for instance, distinguish or classify weeds, diseases or pests. Multispectral cameras can measure generic characteristics such as if a plant is healthy or not, but hyperspectral images can go much further, and diagnose the exact reason for that state. In this sense, multispectral imaging is analogue of the blood pressure or heart rate measurements in medicine, while hyperspectral imaging is analogue of MRI scan, used to diagnose specific diseases.

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Canon has also developed an ultra high pixel count sensor, using advanced miniaturisation techniques to reduce the photosite size. This facilitates very high resolution image capture, with a pixel count up to 250MP. In an image captured using this technology, it is possible to distinguish the lettering on an aircraft in flight 18km away and achieve a resolution approximately 30 times higher than that of 4K video. This has great potential for applications in surveillance, astronomical observation and medical imaging. One shortcoming of current CMOS sensors is that, for technical reasons including data bandwidth, their data is read out sequentially rather than all at once. This results in issues such as "rolling shutter" distortion of fast-moving subjects that have changed their position during the time the frame is being read out. The advanced CMOS sensor in the EOS R3 enables much faster readout speeds, greatly alleviating this issue, and Canon is actively investigating other solutions such as "global shutter" technology, which enables readout of the entire sensor in one go, but this technology is very complex, adds both image noise and cost, and can't yet produce very high-quality outputs.

Camera sensorsize calculator

With all types of sensors, the imaging process begins when light passes through the camera's lens and strikes the sensor. The sensor contains millions of light receptors or photosites, which convert the light energy into an electrical charge. The magnitude of the charge is proportional to the intensity of the light – the more light that hits a particular photosite, the stronger the electrical charge it produces. (SPAD sensors work a little differently – more on this later.) In order to capture colours as well as brightness information, photosites are fitted with red, green and blue colour filters. This means some photosites record the intensity of red light, some the intensity of green, and some the intensity of blue. The electrical signals from all the photosites in the sensor are passed to the camera's image processor, which interprets all this information and determines the colour and brightness values of all the individual pixels (picture elements) that make up a digital image.

Both a CMOS sensor (A) and a SPAD sensor (B) include p-type semiconductors (2) and n-type semiconductors (3) but in different configurations. When a single photon (1) strikes either type of sensor, a single electron is generated (4). In a CMOS sensor, the charge of a single electron is too small to be detected as an electrical signal, so the charge has to be accumulated over a certain period of time. By contrast, a SPAD sensor amplifies the charge by approximately one million times using a phenomenon called Avalanche Multiplication (5), which causes a large current to flow instantaneously, enabling the sensor to detect that a single photon has hit it.

The key to Canon's Dual Gain Output (DGO) technology is that each photosite on the sensor is read at two amplification levels, one high-gain and one low, and the two readouts are then combined into a single HDR image with astonishing detail and low noise.

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CMOS sensor technology has continued to evolve. An innovation developed by Canon is Dual Pixel CMOS AF technology, which enables each pixel on the sensor to be used for both imaging and autofocus, resulting in faster and more accurate AF performance. Another development in Canon's CMOS technology is the stacked, back-illuminated sensor used in the EOS R3. This design places the photodiodes above the transistor layer to improve light collection efficiency, resulting in less image noise and better image quality. Additionally, the stacked structure allows faster data readout, contributing to the camera's high-speed performance. This technology enables the EOS R3 to meet the demands of both high-end video production and high-resolution photography. Canon's CMOS sensor research and development is ongoing. One recent result of this is an ultra high sensitivity 35mm full-frame CMOS sensor, with much larger photo receptors (approximately 7.5 times the size of those in previous sensors). Larger photo receptors are able to capture more light, in this case achieving a sensitivity equivalent to ISO 4 million, enabling a camera to capture vivid colour images of very dark environments. This technology is used in the Canon ME20F-SH ultra low light video camera.

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