A significant parameter for laser material processing is so-called depth of focus, defined as Rayleigh length. It states the distance from the focus at which the area of the beam cross-section has doubled. If, for example, Rayleigh length and sheet metal thickness are adjusted to each other when laser beam cutting, straight cutting edges can be produced. If the sheet metal thickness is too great, the edges become increasingly more rounded.

It can be seen from the above that analysis of the laser beam tool by beam diagnostics must primarily be directed at the 4 named beam properties in order to describe or analyse the interaction of the laser beam with the tool during the process, and where applicable identify sources of error.

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A microscope is something that uses a lens or lenses to make small objects look bigger and to show more detail. This means that a magnifying glass can count as a microscope! It also means that making your own microscope is straightforward.

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When you look through a simple light microscope or a magnifying glass, you are looking through a biconvex lens (one that’s bent like the back of a spoon on both sides) made of glass. The object being viewed is on the far side of the lens. Light from the object passes through the lens and is bent (refracted) towards your eye, so it seems as though it comes from a much bigger object.

Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of visible light to illuminate the object being viewed. However, electrons can’t pass through glass, so the lenses that are used in light microscopes can’t be used to bend the electron beam.

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Rod lenses are cylindrical lenses used for beam collimation, focusing, and imaging. Their unique shape makes them suitable for specific optical applications.

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Some modern instruments that don’t contain lenses are still known as microscopes because they magnify objects. For example, the scanning tunnelling microscope and the atomic force microscope measure the shape of a surface by measuring the distance between the microscope’s probe and the surface. These microscopes generate images at very high resolution. You can learn more about them in the article Nanoscience that introduces our wide range of nanoscience resources.

In practice, modern microscopes contain a series of lenses rather than just one. They have an objective lens (which sits close to the object) and an eyepiece lens (which sits closer to your eye). Both of these contribute to the magnification of the object. The eyepiece lens usually magnifies 10x, and a typical objective lens magnifies 40x. (Microscopes usually come with a set of objective lenses that can be interchanged to vary the magnification.) You can calculate the total magnifying power of the microscope by multiplying the magnifying powers of the objective lens and the eyepiece (so 10 x 40 = total magnification of 400x).

As a tool, the laser beam is characterised by certain properties. Fundamental properties of laser light are its monochromatic nature (one wavelength) and directionality (narrow divergence). In contrast to the beam from a normal light source, laser beams can be very sharply focused. In combination with a laser beam's high power density, a beam of such intensity and limited local focus can be generated that material can be melted or vaporised.

To get around this issue, scientists designed an alternative lens – a coil of wire surrounding the electron beam. When electricity runs through the wire, it generates a magnetic field within the coil. Because electrons are charged, the microscope’s electron beam bends in response to the magnetic field as it passes through the coil. In this way, the coils act as lenses – they bend the electron beam, just as glass lenses bend light in an optical microscope.

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This activity and interactive involve identifying and labelling the main parts of a microscope and describing their function.

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In laser material processing, this is employed in laser beam cutting or welding, for example. Since the laser beam can do this work virtually without contact, it does not deteriorate during the process as does a drill or milling head. The laser beam is directed by the beam generator (laser device) via beam steering to the processing optics using a mirror or optical fibre technology. The processing optic concentrates the laser beam and focuses it, with focal lengths adjusted to the particular process. The typical properties of the focused laser beam are described by the minimum achievable beam diameter (focus) and the beam caustic. The caustic represents the path of the beam diameter coming from the processing optic to the focus and after it.

The objective lens and the ocular or eyepiece lens are in combination responsible for magnification of the specimen being observed. For example: Total ...

What is spot size oflaser beam

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Microscope lenses differ widely in quality, and this can affect how clearly you can see an image. The quality of the glass used and the shape of the lens both affect its overall quality. Misalignment of lenses within the microscope can also limit resolution. In practice, this means that students using classroom microscopes may not be able to view samples that are close to the theoretical limits of resolution of a light microscope.

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Very early microscopes were extremely simple but were still remarkably good at magnifying small objects. For instance, microscopes made by the Dutchman Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 1600s were merely a small glass ball (which acted as a lens) set into a metal frame. Using this simple apparatus, van Leeuwenhoek discovered the world of what he called ‘animalcules’ (microorganisms) – tiny single-celled creatures that are far too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Including more lenses doesn’t change the basic principle of how a microscope magnifies but it does enable higher magnifications and gives a better quality image.

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You’ll meet some highly complex microscopes in our collection of microscope resources, but most of them are just ways of viewing objects in more detail with lenses. A lot of technological innovations have been added to microscopes over time (mostly to make them simpler to use and improve the quality of the images seen). These changes can make microscopes appear more complicated, but they don’t alter the basic science of the microscope lenses.

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Radiometer is the term given to an instrument designed to measure radiant flux. Some radiometers measure the radiant flux contained in a beam having a known ...