Primary extraction in the US is limited; only one active mine, the Mountain Pass Rare Earth Mine and Processing Facility in California, produces rare earth elements domestically. Opening new mines can take decades. As a result, scientists and companies alike are intent on increasing access and improving sustainability by exploring secondary or unconventional sources.

“I want to be one player in a big ecosystem where there’s a lot of folks producing rare earths. That’s the best outcome for everyone.”

Phoenix works to modernize extraction, reducing the amount of energy, equipment, and funding required, says cofounder Anthony Balladon. “You develop chemistries that are tuned for the rare earths, as opposed to trying to brute-force your way through them,” he says.

This spectroscopy technique has grown in popularity for use in life science and medical applications as a way to noninvasively analyze a sample and identify the different components within. It is also used in solid-state physics and chemistry to identify both organic and inorganic materials. A key benefit of Raman spectroscopy is that it is a nondestructive way to assess samples without manipulating the sample or using dyes or labels.

Rare earthminerals

There are fewer than 10 active magnet manufacturers outside China; Noveon is the only one in the US. Afiuny says it acquires all its materials domestically.

Villalón estimates that Phoenix will be busy for a long time: at least 10 billion tons of mine tailings are created each year from new activity.

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“It’s something that’s broadly supported in a bipartisan way,” says Rivalia’s Stoy. “It’s something that I think is very safe from a research funding perspective. The government is interested in this and is going to be funding it for a long time.”

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That technology extracts rare earth elements from coal ash, leaving behind a solution rich in those elements and a residual solid containing iron and other metals. Through sequential steps of heating and cooling, rare earths are transferred into an ionic liquid—a salt in liquid state—via a proton-exchange mechanism. Acid-based reduction techniques and salt-based leaching can reduce the amount of iron in the final solution, after which rare earths must be further separated to produce pure metals or oxides. Rivalia can sell primary outputs to companies that handle subsequent processing steps or to manufacturers using rare earths, and sell residual solids to concrete producers. Stoy says Rivalia’s efforts will produce materials that could be used for cleaner products and alternative energy sources. Furthermore, they could help reduce the carbon footprint of concrete production by repurposing the solid residue as a replacement for emission-­heavy Portland cement—a major ingredient in concrete. (For more on this, see "Climate's hardest problems".)

The researchers suggest that a much broader range of waste sources could be considered, including “red mud,” created during aluminum production, and “produced waters,” which result from oil production, as well as materials sourced from the ocean floor or even outer space.

Besides the four rare earths used most commonly in magnets (neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and terbium), Phoenix recovers battery metals, platinum group metals, low-carbon irons, and other materials in what it calls a “portfolio approach” that improves economic viability. Like Rivalia, Phoenix repurposes residual materials into concrete and other aggregates. This provides long-term storage for carbonaceous materials, reducing environmental impact by trapping them and preventing them from ending up in the water supply.

A startup, Rivalia Chemical, believes the health hazard posed by ash ponds can be addressed by repurposing ash to create a domestic supply of rare earth elements. Laura Stoy, the environmental engineer who founded Rivalia in 2021, says she is motivated by both environmental concerns and the potential for economic revitalization.

Stokes Raman scattering is much more common than anti-Stokes Raman due to the fact that anti-Stokes Raman requires that the molecule already be at an excited vibrational state.2 This means that, although anti-Stokes Raman has a higher energy than Stokes Raman, the intensity is generally much less. Thus, Stokes scattering is typically used in Raman spectroscopy measurements.

Following the 2015 regulation, Earthjustice said that closing ponds by capping them in place is insufficient if they are within five feet of groundwater, and that in such cases only full excavation will prevent future damage. Either option—capping or excavation—would make coal ash harder to access for companies like Rivalia. Stoy says she considers this a reason to move decisively.

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In terms of performance, a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is beneficial for detecting the low efficiency of Raman shifts. A good example of why a high SNR is important is the analysis of fluorescent samples, which are notoriously difficult to investigate using Raman spectroscopy. As mentioned earlier, the signal generated from the fluorescent material becomes a dominant source of noise, overpowering the Raman scattering. Since simply increasing the power of the laser would also increase the fluorescence signal, fluorescence is usually mitigated by changing the wavelength of the excitation laser.

Raman spectroscopy is also useful for enhancing traditional biomedical imaging. With the aid of the Raman technique, imaging can be performed in vitro, to allow for visualization of biological structures within living organisms. Additionally, high-resolution images can be obtained using confocal microscopy in conjunction with Raman spectroscopy. This has led to improved spatial resolution for 3D imaging.10

Stoy says she is wary of inadvertently creating new markets for coal by-­products, which could jeopardize the country’s clean-energy ambitions. Ironically, if utilities stopped using coal, Rivalia’s source materials would eventually dry up. However, she isn’t worried just yet—even in the absence of new production, the US now has 2 billion metric tons of ash, and many other countries seem likely to continue burning coal for the foreseeable future.

Rare earthelements periodic table

All but one of the 17 rare earth elements appear on a 2022 list of 50 designated “critical minerals”—meaning they are economically important yet vulnerable to supply disruption. The 17, such as praseodymium (used in aircraft engines), gadolinium (used in MRI imaging), and neodymium (used in computer hard drives), include the “lanthanide series”—the 15 elements with atomic numbers 57 to 71 near the bottom of the periodic table—as well as two chemically similar elements. The “rare” in “rare earth elements” refers not to the quantity available but rather to their wide dispersion—it’s hard to find an economically meaningful quantity in a single location.

Virtually every Raman setup includes a laser that excites the sample and a detector to collect the emission signal. Additional optics are integrated into the system to focus the beam and optimize the setup to improve signal quality. A simple Raman spectroscopy setup may include an Nd:YAG laser, two mirrors on kinematic mounts, two right angle prisms, and an achromat lens. The light from the laser hits two mirrors for alignment purposes, as shown in the configuration illustrated in Figure 2, and is folded 90° by a right angle prism. An achromatic lens then focuses the light onto the sample. The light that scatters off the sample hits the second prism mirror, which deflects it into a beam dump. The achromat then gathers the scattered light and focuses it onto the detector for collection.4

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Obtaining rare earth elements begins with obtaining source materials, which can happen, broadly, in three ways: primary extraction, or mining directly from the earth; recovery from secondary sources, such as end-of-life electronics; and extraction from unconventional sources, including industrial wastes like coal ash and waste products from mines. But China so dominates the market—it controlled 60% of global production in 2021—that other countries are at a disadvantage. After China announced export restrictions in 2023 on gallium, germanium, and graphite, nations scrambled to find alternative sources in anticipation of future restrictions.

Raman spectroscopy is a powerful technique for identifying unknown substances. When creating a Raman spectroscopy system, it is vital to select the correct optical components. Choosing the right mirrors, lenses, prisms, filters, and other components can help minimize noise and light loss to be able to meet the requirements for any given application. From archaeology to the diagnosis of disease, this laser-based diagnostic method is critical for a variety of different fields.

Raman scattering is a physical process in which the direction, and more importantly, the energy of incoming light changes as it scatters off of a sample. Light that interacts with a sample can experience one of a few different phenomena; most of the light is absorbed, transmitted, or reflected through the sample. However, a small amount of that light is scattered in one of three ways: Rayleigh, Stokes Raman, or anti-Stokes Raman scattering (Figure 1).

According to the International Energy Agency, demand for rare earth elements is expected to reach three to seven times current levels by 2040; demand for other critical minerals such as lithium may multiply 40-fold. Delivering on the 2016 Paris Agreement, under which signatory nations are obligated to reduce emissions to cap the global temperature increase, would require the global mineral supply to quadruple within the same time frame. At the current rate, supply is on track to merely double.

Phoenix Tailings is a Massachusetts-based startup extracting rare earth elements from mining sites. Two of Phoenix’s founders, who grew up in communities affected by mining, say they are motivated by personal experience in addition to the growing demand for rare earth elements.

Rare earth materialslist

Raman spectroscopy can be utilized in a variety of applications. It is incredibly useful to those involved in life sciences because the spectrum analyzed through this method provides accurate and unique identifiers of specific molecules. For example, Raman spectroscopy is commonly used as a technique to identify pharmaceutical drugs. Measurements can be taken through plastic bottles, checking drugs without contaminating them by opening the bottle.11 Border patrol agents use hand-held Raman spectroscopy devices to quickly and accurately analyze the spectra of unknown confiscated substances. By comparing the spectra from the unknown substances to those of illegal drugs like fentanyl, officials can safely dispose of dangerous substances. Learn more in our Using IR Spectroscopy for Counterfeit Drug Detection case study. In addition to its practicality, samples can be used without any extra additives or preparation, making Raman spectroscopy not only useful, but also portable and efficient.

Still, Stoy says, this is a strategic move in light of the need to diversify supply. It’s also an opportunity to make use of a widely available material with few alternative uses and significant economic value; the value of rare earth elements in US coal ash reserves was previously estimated at $4.3 billion (based on 2013 prices) and has likely grown since then. As a fairly new startup, the company is still in the R&D stage and is currently focused on reducing extraction costs.

The race to produce rare earth elements domestically in the US is, at least partially, an attempt to figure out how to do so economically; however, companies are unlikely to get production costs low enough to be able to compete on price alone. Experts hope consumers will be willing to pay a premium, partly absorbing the increased costs.

Handling all that ash will have to be done with care, says Lisa Evans, senior counsel in the clean-energy program at Earthjustice. Evans says that even for companies motivated by cleanup hopes, additional regulatory oversight is needed to ensure they dispose of by-products appropriately. “What I’ve experienced in so many years of looking at how industries behave is that they don’t do anything they’re not required to do,” she says, adding that the government should also ensure that communities receive adequate notice of nearby extraction activities.

A clean excitation signal is a vital component in a Raman spectroscopy experiment to ensure that scatter data is measured accurately. To make certain that only the desired signal is detected, high-performance bandpass and longpass filters complement each other well in this regard. When incorporated into a system (Figure 3), the high transmission and narrow bandwidth of the bandpass filters eliminate noise and ensure that only the desired laser line reaches the sample. Then, the longpass filter is incorporated after the laser interacts with the sample to allow wavelengths longer than the excitation wavelength to pass, which are characteristic of Stokes Raman scattering.

Any scattering process can be classified as either elastic or inelastic: elastic scattering occurs when the incoming photon is scattered with the same amount of energy as when it entered the system; inelastic scattering occurs when the incoming photon is scattered with either higher or lower energy than it originally contained. Rayleigh is a form of elastic scattering while Stokes Raman and anti-Stokes Raman are inelastic. The differentiating characteristic of the two types of inelastic scattering is dependent on the energy of the scattered photon. One scenario occurs when the photon interacts with the material and the photon first excites the material to a higher energy virtual state, then relaxes down to a higher energy vibrational state. The photon transfers energy to the molecule, meaning that the scattered photon is at a lower energy, thus a longer wavelength. This effect is known as Stokes Raman scattering. On the contrary, when the molecule starts in the higher energy vibrational state and is excited to the virtual state via photon interaction, when it relaxes back down to a lower energy level, it will go down to a lower vibrational energy level. The scattered photon will gain energy from this interaction and scatter at a shorter wavelength. This effect is known as anti-Stokes Raman scattering. Raman spectroscopy is often confused with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectroscopy; however, FTIR is the direct transition between vibrational states.

Some companies target recycled materials rather than coal wastes as a source of recoverable rare earths. Noveon Magnetics—formerly Urban Mining—extracts critical materials from discarded commercial magnets (from motors or medical devices, for example, or from storage drives used by data centers) or those withdrawn from the supply chain because of manufacturing defects or obsolescence. From these materials, Noveon manufactures new sintered neodymium boron magnets, critical components of generators in wind turbines and motors in electric vehicles.

Regulators have started addressing the coal ash problem, so startups hoping to use the material will need to watch ongoing developments closely. The EPA began regulating the management of coal ash ponds in 2015 following destructive spills in 2008 and 2014. A recently proposed update to the 2015 rule mandates that older, inactive ponds that were previously exempt be covered or excavated.

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One way to improve the signal being extracted is to use a laser with a shorter wavelength, and consequently a higher photon energy, to ensure that the energy of the light is higher than that of the energy gap between the electronic ground and excited states. The detector’s responsivity should also be considered. For example, when using a 532nm laser, the resulting scattered photons will be distributed in the visible range, thus, a detector should be chosen that has high quantum efficiency in the visible spectrum, such as a charge-coupled device (CCD). However, when using an NIR laser, such as an Nd:YAG with a wavelength of 1064nm, indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) detectors are ideal due to their high responsivity in the NIR region. This is an easy way to increase the signal on the detector without compromising overall design.

Portable Raman spectroscopy devices are also helpful when used on-site to quickly identify specimens, such as in forensic analysis or in point-of-care clinical settings. These hand-held devices are extremely valuable when scanning hazardous samples as they can determine chemical composition while keeping the material in packaging.12 Similarly, the Department of Defense uses Raman spectroscopy to analyze explosive materials through clear containers without accidental explosion.12 These, of course, are not the only instances where Raman techniques are applicable. Raman spectroscopy is used in other disciplines, such as in chemistry, to identify structures at the molecular level; in the field of materials science to view the stress and strain of a material; in geology to identify different gemstones; and in art to identify unknown pigments or paints.

Between 2015 and 2021, the DOE awarded at least $27 million to projects related to extracting rare earth elements from both conventional and unconventional resources. In 2022 and 2023, the government announced at least $1 billion of funding available to support related work, including significant amounts from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. Other agencies have also announced support for companies working to help boost the nation’s supply of critical materials, signaling a renewed sense of urgency for a longtime item on the policy agenda. Rivalia, Phoenix, and Noveon have all benefited from government support, suggesting that the government is willing to place bets on companies at varied sizes and stages of progress.

After obtaining an oxide concentrate containing the rare earths, Phoenix uses separation techniques to draw out the desired end products. This is followed by reduction into final metal and alloy products using mixed-halide molten-salt electrolysis, resulting in 35% to 45% lower energy requirements. Chief technology officer Tomás Villalón says Phoenix’s process reduces the amount of material inadvertently lost between processing steps and improves the purity of the final product. Phoenix’s founders also highlight the sustainability of the company’s process, which they say uses no hazardous materials and creates zero direct carbon emissions. The company is currently producing rare earth metals for commercial clients and expects to be producing over 3,000 tons per year of finished rare earth metals by 2026.

Where arerare earthmetals found

Raman spectroscopy is also frequently integrated into microscopy techniques, an example of which is confocal microscopy. The microscopes used in these instances differ from traditional microscopes in that they include additional components such as an excitation laser, laser filters, and a spectrometer. The Raman setup can be integrated seamlessly into the regions in the microscope’s optical path in which light is collimated after leaving an infinite conjugate objective. To aid this process, longer tube lengths may be beneficial for fitting the additional components into the system. Using Raman spectroscopy at the microscopic level is beneficial for analyzing microscopic structures for chemical identification.

Rivalia prefers to work with existing waste products as opposed to coal that has not yet been burned. This approach is risky; extraction from unconventional sources can cost more than mining, given the low concentrations of rare earth elements and the greater initial concentration of toxic contaminants.

Back-thinned CCDs are ideal options for the low light detection of Raman spectroscopy because their quantum efficiency gets as high as 90 percent at their peak wavelength.6 These detectors have high quantum efficiencies in the visible and UV spectra because incident light interacts directly with the sensor’s active region. NIR back-thinned CCDs with improved quantum efficiencies in the NIR and red wavelength regions can also be used to increase the SNR for longer wavelengths.

Edmund Optics supplies a wide range of components for Raman spectroscopy systems including mirrors, prisms, lenses, laser sources, and optomechanics. More components ideal for these systems are continuously added as the Raman spectroscopy application space continues to grow.

One unconventional source of rare earth elements is coal ash, the residual solid waste from burning coal at power plants. Historically, coal ash has often been mixed with water to form a slurry that is stored in ponds (also called surface impoundments). This ash, which contains elevated concentrations of rare earth elements, could be a significant domestic source of the materials in former US coal towns, which face challenges due to plant closures. There are more than 1,000 coal ash ponds across the US, mostly spread across the eastern part of the country. One of the largest facilities, Plant Barry in Mobile County, Alabama, contains more than 21 million tons of ash spread over 600 acres.

The Raman spectroscopy technique is one of the most effective methods of determining the chemical composition of a sample via Raman scattering.3 In this spectroscopy technique, a sample is excited by a monochromatic light source, such as a laser, and the Raman Shifts are collected. Raman Shifts are frequency shifts that occur when monochromatic light scatters off of a sample and produces a different frequency than that of the original light source. This can be used to find the change in energy of the photon, which is the same energy difference from the ground vibrational state to the excited state. This process is used to create a unique fingerprint from which the sample can be identified. The Raman effect is best measured with monochromatic light sources, such as lasers. Because of the slight difference in wavelengths of the excitation and scattering photons due to the Raman scattering, the Raman effect would likely be overshadowed by a broadband source. This means that the wavelength of the source is a key specification, affecting the resolution, intensity, and even the cost of a Raman spectroscopy setup. The choice of laser can span from the ultraviolet (UV) to the infrared (IR), and different wavelengths have different pros and cons depending on the application.4

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Knowledge Center/ Application Notes/ Laser Application Notes/ Basic Principles of Raman Scattering and Spectroscopy

These funding allocations often reveal the priorities of the issuing administration; the focus under former president Donald Trump, for example, was independence from China, while the Biden administration’s support for domestic production of rare earths seems more tied to its push for wider adoption of electric vehicles. Regardless of motivation, all parties seem aligned on the importance of rare earth elements.

Since normal Raman scattering produces an extraordinarily small signal, researchers have discovered several mechanisms in order to combat the low signals associated with Raman spectroscopy by enhancing the probability of Raman scattering. Signal enhancement can be achieved by using two theories. The first of which is Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS), which uses metallic surfaces to amplify the local electric field, increasing the chance of Raman Scattering and resulting in a higher intensity output.7 Alternatively, chemical enhancement is done under resonance Raman spectroscopy, which occurs when the frequency of the incident light is close to the frequency of an electronic absorption band in the molecule increasing the intensity of the Raman effect.8

Figure 1. The laser cavity. An He-Ne laser works by exciting Neon atoms in the gas. The 632.8 nm.

According to DOE projections, US demand for these rare earth magnets is set to more than quadruple by 2050. This is partly because of improved industrial technologies, says Noveon’s chief commercial officer, Peter Afiuny. “Industrial pumps, compressors, HVAC systems … 50% of our electric consumption is being driven by those motors. If you’re talking about getting to carbon neutral, you need to upgrade those systems and make them more efficient,” he says.

Stoy began developing Rivalia’s flagship technology during graduate school at the Georgia Institute of Technology and is now working to scale it within the Chain Reaction Innovations program at the DOE’s Argonne National Laboratory. In 2019, Georgia Tech supported the budding company in filing a patent (currently pending) for its technology, for which Rivalia holds an exclusive license.

The company produces a new type of high-­performance magnet, which it calls “EcoFlux,” using less material than conventional versions, says Afiuny. While it’s hard for recycled magnets to perform as well as nonrecycled products, Afiuny says that Noveon has managed the feat by combining a proprietary technology that improves the composition and properties of magnetic materials with its patented Magnet-to-Magnet technology that can recycle up to 99.5% of input materials. He adds that Noveon has multiple customers and produces at commercial scale in its Texas facility. He says the company plans to produce 10,000 tons a year within five years.

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Can these alternative sources replace existing imports? In a recent paper published in the National Academy of Engineering’s magazine, The Bridge, DOE researchers estimate that for some critical materials such as germanium, coal ash can meet US demand for nearly 4,000 years, but for most materials, the supply will last for less than 20 years (and for nickel, for just a little more than one year).

For numerous sample types, using a near-infrared (NIR) excitation laser is advantageous because many substances will fluoresce at wavelengths close to UV light, and this fluorescence will overshadow any scattering measurements making it nearly impossible to record any meaningful data. This does not suggest that higher wavelengths represent better systems; one thing to consider when using NIR is higher noise and cost. Commonly, a good balance between performance, fluorescence, and cost is a 785nm NIR laser.5 One of the issues that comes along with using NIR lasers is they tend to emit a higher power. In order to effectively conduct Raman spectroscopy with this sort of laser, it is critical that the optical components used in the system have a high enough laser damage threshold to be compatible with the particular laser source being used. However, it is important to understand that due to the statistical nature of laser damage testing, this threshold is not the power at which damage will never occur. Rather, the laser damage threshold is defined as the limit at which the damage probability is less than a critical risk level. This depends on several factors—such as beam diameter, number of test sites per sample, and number of samples tested—to determine the specification. You can learn more in our Understanding and Specifying LDT of Laser Components application note.

Additional new sources are needed, says Granite: “You’re going to need many different waste materials and nontraditional sources to meet the long-term demand, because we project growing demands for many of these critical metals.”

Abandoning fossil fuels and adopting lower-­carbon technologies are our best options for warding off the accelerating threat of climate change. Access to rare earth elements, key ingredients in many of these technologies, will partly determine which countries will meet their goals for lowering emissions or increasing the proportion of electricity generated from non-fossil-fuel sources. But some nations, including the US, are increasingly worried about whether the supply of those elements will remain stable.

Rare earthmetals are also known as

“Hopefully there is a market for a domestically produced material that’s produced in an environmentally conscious manner and an ethical manner that’s respectful of the workers producing the material,” says Evan Granite, program manager for the carbon ore program at the DOE’s Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management.

Another unconventional source of critical materials is tailings—the waste products of mines themselves. The EPA does not yet regulate mine tailings, even though they are similar to coal ash in the environmental risks they pose, says Evans of Earthjustice.

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As the race to achieve self-sufficiency in rare earth elements and critical materials intensifies, the US is likely to further expand both the number of organizations involved and the diversity of potential sources.

These new magnets serve the same types of customers from which the materials were collected—such as companies using motors to power consumer electronics and medical or automotive products. The result is a loop of reuse.

Despite growing competition, Stoy says there’s room for everyone. “I want to be one player in a big ecosystem where there’s a lot of folks producing rare earths,” she says. “That is the best outcome for everyone.”

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These ponds are not harmless; according to the US Environmental Protection Agency, improper management of them can compromise waterways, groundwater, drinking water, and air via contaminants such as mercury, cadmium, and arsenic. A document submitted by Earthjustice, a nonprofit environmental law organization,  and Earthworks, a nonprofit focused on preventing the destructive impacts of oil, gas, and mineral extraction, responding to a 2023 request for information from the US Department of Energy, noted that “91% of power plants storing coal combustion residuals (CCRs) are polluting the underlying groundwater to levels that exceed federal drinking water standards.” Ponds can also be destabilized during extreme weather events, and the resulting flood of contaminated material can destroy wildlife, damage property, and threaten community health and safety.