Uncoated synthetic crystal quartz has practically zero absorptance across from the UV into the near IR.. While contacted and cemented surfaces have essentially zero reflectance, non-immersed surfaces incur a Fresnel reflectance loss of about 4.65% each. To preserve power and avoid interference losses and laser feedback, anti-reflective (AR) coatings are advised for all non-immersed surfaces.

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Clear optical cement can be used to bond the two components. This technique produces greater durability across the cement’s usable range (typically -30 C to + 80 C.) However, beam deviation is usually degraded to several arc minutes, λ/10 transmitted wavefront tolerances are more difficult to achieve, and laser damage threshold and power handling are severely compromised within the cement layer. Still, this option is useful in extra-cavity, low-power situations where ruggedness is a priority.

But light propagating along the z axis, being a transverse wave, is always polarized perpendicular to the z axis and so it propagates faster. This is not how waveplates are used, and is the cause for some confusion.

In light of this discovery, I've foregone using film, and now just view aerial images of my subjects, using a small microscope focused on the film plane.

Jun 28, 2003 — This is because the 1/1.8 CCD is larger than the 1/2.7 one and thus the 1/1.8 CCD lets more light in to the individual sensors. By the way the " ...

It was a line/mm test, such as the one you refer to. I4ve tried both Soligors(which I believe is not made anymore) and Leicas and I4ve noticed a big difference in performance between the two. If you4re satisfied with how Pentax lenses perform, use them!

This article is intended to familiarize the reader with the functions, design, and characteristics of the crystalline waveplate – a true workhorse in precision optics.

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But I have seen tests that placed Leicas Summicron 35mm in second place after a low budget lens, a Soligor! Who can believe in that?

Waveplatesexplained

by TA Labutin · 2016 · Cited by 291 — The presented review summarizes nearly two decades of studies on femtosecond laser-induced breakdown spectrometry (fs-LIBS). When an ultra-short (<1 ps) ...

The best glue for bonding glass and metal is a cyanoacrylate adhesive, commonly known as super glue. It forms a strong and durable bond between these two ...

Glass rhombs and prisms such as the Fresnel rhomb and its variations are extremely achromatic, quite insensitive to temperature variations, and have low sensitivity to angle of incidence. On the other hand they have a limited field of view, are expensive, very long (≈ 4 times the aperture for λ/2 and ≈ 20 times the aperture for a non-offsetting λ/4), require large lateral clearance (≈ 4 times the aperture plus mounting for the shorter designs) and may offset the beam (the shorter λ/4 offsets the beam by 1.3 times the aperture.)

Regrettably there is no standard. Some people count the first instance as “first order.” Thus 1λ/4 would be a first order. Others count a full wave as an order. Thus 5λ/4 would be a “first order.” Still others count the total number of functional units: 5λ/4 would be a “fifth order.” And some count the number of units with similar function: 5λ/4 would be a “third order” because the “first” order is 1λ/4, 2λ/4 acts not as a quarter wave but a half wave retarder, 3λ/4 acts as a quarter wave retarder (although of opposite handedness) and 4λ/4 does nothing. To make matters worse, the desired retardation is not always modulo λ/4. What order is a 5 3/8 λ waveplate? Or an 8.4 λ waveplate?

So what is a “zero order?” Good question. In this article we use the term “zero order” to mean less than 1λ. The only safe way to avoid confusion is to specify the total retardation, for example, 7.25 λ.

Birefringent materials exhibit a different index of refraction for different orientations of polarization. Crystal quartz, in particular, has a difference of about 0.009 between its ordinary (o) and extraordinary (e) indices. When light incident on quartz has components seeing both indices, those components will propagate at different velocities and fall progressively out of phase.

factor. For example an APO-Rodagon 50/2.8 at it's specified optimum aperture (f5.6) and enlargement ratio (10x)has an MTF of about 40% at 80 lp/mm. This means that the contrast of detail at 80 lp/mm in the print will only be 40% of that in the negative! This means that if you can just resolve 80 lp/mm

Figures 6 and 7 clearly demonstrate why compound zero-order waveplates are frequently preferred despite their somewhat higher cost: They maintain optimum performance across a much larger range of temperatures and wavelengths. For use with laser diodes having variable wavelength, or in instruments that warm up over time, or in locations subject to the environment, their stability is paramount.

Leaning in · Identify (and preferably hold!) the object you want to examine · Bring your magnifying glass to your dominant eye, maybe an inch or two away at ...

-Most square film shooters crop their final prints to 645. As a custom printer that's produced a LOT of custom enlargements over the years I'd easily put virtually any 6x7 format image ahead of any 6x6 format one for this reason. Yes, color rendition levels out at about 16x20, but raw enlargement factors are still relevant. My older Mamiya type C lenses are easily inferior to Zeiss, but no question that my 16x20 and larger prints are superior to the Hassie ones. Raw surface area defeats lens resolution every time.

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In form, a crystalline waveplate consists of one or more plane-parallel plates of birefringent material, usually synthetic crystal quartz. In use it shifts the phase of light polarized along its optic axis with respect to light polarized across its optic axis. This results in the transformation of one state of polarization to another – linear to circular, vertical to horizontal, etc. In conjunction with other polarizing elements such as Brewster windows, polarizing beamsplitters, and linear polarizers, the waveplate can act as a valve, filter, tuner, or switch.

We can combine multiple order waveplates made from two different birefringent materials to achieve achromatic compensation across a broad spectral range. The design process is similar to making an achromatic doublet lens, although we have far fewer materials to choose from. Useful achromats can be made with combinations of quartz, MgF2, and sapphire. A quartz-MgF2 achromat maintains 0.250 ± 0.003 λ from 700 to 1000 nm. Tower Optical offers three such ranges: 465-610 nm, 700-1000 nm, and 1200-1650 nm

Figure 5: Retardation within a dual-wavelength waveplate. Thickness increases to right. The respective retardations of two wavelengths are depicted by differently colored lines representing quarter-waves. Two useful combinations of those wavelengths match well at the thicknesses indicated.

Inter Optic is located in Kemps Corner, Mumbai, which is easily accessible from different parts of the city. Patients can reach the optician by car or public ...

Jul 20, 2023 — Anti-glare (AG) or anti-reflective (AR) lens coatings are specific coatings designed to decrease the amount of reflective light in your lenses.

If two identical multiple order plates are placed together so that one’s fast axis is along the other’s slow axis, they cancel each other’s retardation. But if those two plates differ in retardation by 1λ/4, the function is similar to that bubble-thin true zero order plate. Compared to the 37λ/4 multiple, the variation of retardation vs. wavelength and temperature are reduced by the ratio 37:1. Retardation change vs. angle of incidence, however, is proportional to the overall thickness.

If uncertain about any element of waveplate design, discuss your requirements with a knowledgeable product specialist who can provide the guidance you need.

WaveplatesWuthering Waves

Polymer waveplates have some desirable qualities including true zero order operation, broad field of view, and large apertures. On the other hand they have a low damage threshold unsuitable for intracavity or high power laser use, and limited storage temperature range.

WaveplatesWuWa

The two components comprising these waveplates must be mutually aligned to work properly. This can be accomplished in several ways: Optical contacting the two parts, cementing them, or co-mounting them separately to a cell with an air-gap between.

Waveplatesvs half wave plate

Because their retardation depends upon path length and birefringence, and the optic axis is in the plane of the surface, angle of incidence affects retardation. Waveplates are typically designed for best performance at normal incidence. Light incident at an angle rotated about the optic axis experiences a greater path length, while light incident at an angle to the optic axis normal experiences a lower birefringence. Therefore light incident non-normal to the optic axis is retarded less, and light incident at an orthogonal angle is retarded more, than nominal. The difference is proportional to the overall thickness of each plate, its inherent birefringence, and the square of the angle to each axis taken separately. Thus doubling an angle quadruples the effect, in opposite sense in two orthogonal axes, while light in a plane that bisects the axes sees practically no effect. Crystalline quartz and MgF2 are both positive uniaxial crystals. A compound zero-order or achromat made from these materials exhibits an angular dependence of retardation equivalent to the sum of the separate parts. This effect can be reduced in two ways: Thinner parts overall (for multiple or compound zero-order,) or an achromat made from a positive and negative pair such as quartz and sapphire

Light experiences the extraordinary index of a crystal when it is polarized along the optic (z) axis. In a waveplate, the optic axis is in the plane of the surface and perpendicular to the propagation, allowing light to be polarized either within or across the optic axis.

Mica waveplates are inherently zero-order, have very low dispersion and broad angular tolerance, and can be made inexpensively. Because of their low dispersion they can make (λ/4, λ/4) and (λ/2, λ/2) combinations at harmonic wavelengths, but not other combinations. And they can only be made by cleaving from natural mica which results in larger retardation tolerances and localized defects, and they have a very low damage threshold and high absorption.

-The resolution of negative films both color and B/W varies greatly with exposure. I have yet to see a photodo.com or any other test group take this into account.

If that phase difference (δφ) is any odd multiple of a quarter-wave, the exiting polarization becomes circular. If instead we insert a waveplate at the same orientation whose δφ is an odd multiple of λ/2, the exiting polarization is linear but orthogonal to the input. Now if we rotate that half waveplate (λ/2) so that its slow axis is no longer along X, we obtain linear polarization with an orientation mirrored about the waveplate’s axis. Thus a λ/2 waveplate can rotate linear polarization to any desired orientation. And if we rotate the quarter waveplate (λ/4), we obtain elliptical or linear polarization. And all of these transformations can be done in reverse!

Crystal quartz waveplates offer the lowest beam deviation (<1 arc second,) the best transmitted wavefront (<λ/10,) a small package, high damage threshold, and the option of multiple-wavelength combinations, at a reasonable price. On the other hand they do have a limited field of view.

The lens first devised by Augustin Fresnel (pronounced fraynel) (1788-1827) is a beehive shape of concentric annular sections that cast parallel beams of light.

The simplest waveplate is a single plate of synthetic crystal quartz with retardation between 20 to 80 quarter-waves. Why so many quarters? A 1λ/4 quartz waveplate at 500 nm would be only 67.7 µm thick, nearly impossible to handle, clean, mount, or even fabricate. A 9.25 λ plate is almost 0.5 mm thick: a practical compromise all around – unless it must also work across 488-512 nm. Across that range this plate changes from nearly zero effective retardation (9.00 λ) to over λ/2 (9.505 λ.)

The crystalline waveplate is an essential and versatile tool for controlling, analyzing, and optimizing polarized light. Whether the goal is to separate or fine-tune wavelengths, adjust ellipticity, or rotate polarization, the right waveplate can do the job in very little space. This simple plane-parallel optical device is economical, handles high pulse and continuous powers, and is available in stock or in custom configurations.

These are not strictly polarization states, but rather special cases of the orientation of a linear polarization state with respect to a reflecting or refracting surface. The plane of polarization contains the e-vector without regard to surfaces. The plane of incidence contains the directions of propagation and the surface normal without regard to polarization. P-polarization is where those two planes are parallel. S-polarization is where those two planes are perpendicular. A convenient way to remember these cases (for those unfamiliar with the German language) is to imagine the plane of polarization as the plane of a playing card brought into contact with the optic’s surface. In the P-orientation the card’s corner will ‘poke’ into the surface; in the S-orientation its end face will ‘slip’ across the surface. Alternatively, imagine the plane of polarization as the plane of a flat stone thrown into a lake. In the S-orientation, it will ‘skip’ across the lake; in the P-orientation it will ‘plunge’ into the lake.

Half-wave plate

A phase difference of a half-wave (180° or π radians) between the X and Y components mirror-reflects the plane of polarization about the X or Y axis. If the phase difference is any other value, the light is not contained within a plane and its projection describes an ellipse over time on the X-Y plane. We call this elliptical polarization. Circular polarization is a special case of elliptical polarization. Elliptical and circular polarization can have a clockwise or counterclockwise sense.

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I think that lens tests might do the work in some cases, but I believe more in what I see with my own eyes, in practical tests. Everyone who has tried a Leica knows that their lenses are of a very high standard, perhaps the best 35 mm lenses on the market.

As long as analog film is being used as a reference source MTF tests are relative at best. And yes, I agree that MTF values are better than LP/MM tests. Some things to ponder;

Single- wavelength anti-reflective coatings (VAR) reduce reflective losses to under 0.15% per surface when tuned to the wavelength of use. Dual -wavelength or dual- band (DBAR) coatings are necessary for dual-wavelength waveplates, and broad-band (BBAR) coatings for achromatic waveplates.

By separating the two components, the problems of the interface are avoided. Air-gap waveplates exhibit especially high laser damage threshold, extreme temperature range survivability, and good vacuum operation characteristics while maintaining the best beam deviation and transmitted wavefront. This option is slightly more expensive because both sides of each component must be coated to avoid reflective losses.

I find that the resolving power of the film is most limiting, and that just about any lens - if properly focused - will generate an image in the film plane beyond the capabilities of the film to record.

You had to ask! This can be confusing. For purposes of quartz and MgF2 waveplates, Light polarized along the optic axis goes slower (is retarded.) The situation is reversed for sapphire whose ne is lower than n0.

Optical contacting is a technique whereby two extremely clean, matching surfaces are brought into intimate contact and bond to each other through the mutual attraction of Van der Waals forces. Beam deviation and transmitted wavefront are preserved. Because differential expansion can build stresses within the bond to the point that the parts separate, contacted waveplates – especially large ones – should be protected from extreme temperature excursions even during storage and shipment.

Figure 4: Circular waveplate with fiducial flat (left) and mounted in cell with scribed orientation marks. The z axis is along the diameter containing the flat or the scribe marks.

The z axis is indicated on circular waveplates by a small edge flat. The z axis runs from the center of that flat across the diameter.

Bench tests usung extreme conditions (high contrast trans-illuminated targets etc.) are fine if you are trying to show your lenses are

Completely polarized light can be described by the projection of its transverse vibrations onto a plane defined by two arbitrary orthogonal axes (we can call them X and Y) and the time phase difference between these two projections. If the light is completely polarized within one plane, we call that plane-polarization or linear-polarization. If the X and Y axes are at an angle to this plane we use Cartesian coordinates to describe the projected components, which may be of different amplitude.

Say we have linear polarized light with its plane of polarization bisecting the X and Y axes. The X-component and Y-component are equal and in phase. Now we insert a quartz waveplate whose e axis is along X. Because ne is larger than no in quartz, the X-component falls behind the Y-component inside the waveplate, and exits out of phase.

Dual-wavelength waveplates with different fractions at two chosen wavelengths enable selective processing of the beams: One wavelength may be circulated while the other is selected out, one may be rotated while the other is not, etc. Laser and instrument designers find these functions invaluable. It is even possible sometimes to find useful combinations for three wavelengths.

Fractional waves of retardation are detectable; full waves aren’t. So what distinguishes a 1λ/4 waveplate from a 37λ/4 waveplate? As we’ll see there are important advantages either way. Clearly the 37λ/4 plate is a higher “order,” but what is an order?

In collimated light this effect can be utilized to angle-tune the waveplate, obtaining the exact desired retardation regardless of manufacturing variations. However in uncollimated light this effect can deny the desired performance. If possible, keep divergence and angle of incidence below 30’. Again, the guidance of a knowledgeable product specialist is invaluable.

Any multiple order plate will exhibit desirable retardation values at more than one wavelength. The plate described above, designed to be 9.25 λ at 500 nm, will be exactly 11.25 λ at 420.9 nm, 8.5 λ at 539.6 nm, etc. Unfortunately we don’t pick wavelengths, they pick us. And finding a useful combination at two or more specific wavelengths is a bit of art. Some combinations are closer matches than others, and some are impractically thick or thin. A knowledgeable applications engineer will find a workable combination if it exists. It never hurts to ask.

Waveplates are made with the optic axis (c or z) in the plane of the surface so that birefringence is maximized. Phase differences of any integral numbers of wavelengths are not discernable, but as explained earlier, fractional wavelength phase differences transform polarization states.

Well, my 200 mm tests at 60 lp/mm at f22. That is from a chart with T-max 100 film. The rest(centers only) f5.6-72, f8-68, f11-72, f16-72 and f22-60. I don't understand the 68 at f8, as I got it on two separate negatives. I must have been reading the negatives late at night!! F11 is the "sweet spot"

One more thought on testing lenses. The three p67 lense that I own, the 55, 105 and 200 are are all excellent EXCEPT for the 105 at f16 and f22. My 105 goes really soft at 16 and 22. Others tell me that they have not seen this. Point, MTF test published are for that particular sample and MF lenses do seem to vary from sample to sample. Thus doing testing on your own lenses, reveals the individual quirks.

Birefringence is neither exactly proportional to wavelength nor completely achromatic. Therefore a λ4 waveplate at 600 nm is not a λ/4 waveplate at 300 nm, nor is it a λ/2 waveplate at 300 nm. This creates both limitation and opportunity: If we want to route two wavelengths simultaneously, we utilize a waveplate that functions differently at the two wavelengths. Also, temperature affects not only expansion and therefore waveplate thickness, but also its birefringence. Angle of incidence also affects retardation. And each birefringent material has different characteristics. Only certain options are available, and some work better than others, so it is critical to discuss your requirements with a leading firm specializing in waveplates.

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