When an electron absorbs energy, is it promoted to a higher energy level further away from the nucleus of the atom and is described as being ‘excited’.

The first compound microscopes date to 1590. These devices use more than one lens, a step above most single magnifying lenses or glasses. The actual inventor is contested because there were several people at work on them, but father and son team Hans and Zacharias Jensen are usually credited.

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Had people been ready, would the technology have been pushed harder?  It’s notable that van Leeuwenhoek was utterly unknown: he had no training in natural philosophy/natural history, as the sciences were then called. The “father of microbiology” was completely self-taught. In the context of a rich Dutch glass-making tradition, he perfected his own lenses, grinding and polishing them himself. His microscopes weren’t even the compound type used by others; they were single lens devices, basically extraordinary magnifying glasses. He never published a book; the record of his work is in his correspondence with the Royal Society.

The word “microscope” first appeared in print in 1625. And yet, as Ball writes, no “truly scientific use was made of the microscope” until 1661, when Marcello Malpighi discovered capillaries in the dried lung of a frog. His work would have been impossible without a microscope. Robert Hooke’s famous book Micrographia of 1665, with its sumptuous illustrations of tiny things, confirmed the importance of the new technology for observation.

About the plaque on his teeth, van Leeuwenhoek noted that the bacteria was “very prettily a-moving” in the spittle, one type going “like a pike does through the water.”

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Electrons can only exist in discrete energy levels (these can also be called electron shells) – they can’t exist halfway between. The lowest energy level that an electron can be in is called the ground state. For an electron to move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, it must absorb a set amount of energy because energy levels are quantised.  This means that the energy absorbed by the electron must be exactly the same as the energy difference between the two levels.

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Biologist Clara Sue Ball examines why “the early history of the compound microscope reveals a curious lack of interest among scientists in the possibilities of the new instrument.”

When the microscope was first invented, it was a novelty item. Early examples were called flea or fly glasses, since they magnified those small insects to what seemed a great size at the time. But scientists didn’t readily take to the new technology.

Emission spectroscopy is used to measure the photons released when an electron falls to a lower energy level after becoming excited. The emission spectrum of a certain material is shown by a black band with separated coloured lines. These colours lines are the parts of the spectrum where photons have been released from the electrons when they fall to a lower energy level.

There are two types of absorption spectroscopy: atomic and molecular. Atomic absorption spectroscopy is the method of producing a spectrum when free atoms absorb different wavelengths of light – this is usually used for gases. Molecular absorption spectroscopy is the method of producing a spectrum when whole molecules absorb different wavelengths of light (usually ultraviolet or visible).

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Light absorption is the process in which light is absorbed by matter and converted into energy. In an atom, electrons vibrate at a specific frequency – this is called the natural frequency. If a wave of light hits a material in which the electrons are vibrating at the same frequency as the wave of light, the electrons will absorb the energy and convert it into vibrational motion. This is why objects have different colours – different materials’ electrons will vibrate at different rates, and therefore absorb different frequencies of light.

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Apochromatic microscope objective lenses are infinite optical systems available in several magnifications working in the spectral region from 355nm to 1064nm.

It was the Dutch Antony Van Leeuwenhoek who used the microscope to start making discoveries, not just bigger pictures of things. The tradesman turned to crafting his own lenses, which had up to 300X magnification, a huge jump in power from most previous devices, the best of which were in the 20-30 x life-size range. His curiosity was large, too. He is credited with discovering bacteria, protists, nematodes, and spermatozoa, among other things. He examined and drew the “animalcules” (from the Latin for “little animals”) of his own semen after sex. (Mrs. van Leeuwenhoek’s opinion that famous event does not seem to have been reported.)

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Absorption spectroscopy is a technique used to measure the absorption of energy. The absorption spectrum of a certain material is shown by a continuous band of colour with black lines between them. The coloured parts represent the total light that is focused on the material. The black lines show an absence of this light – these are the parts of the spectrum where the electrons have absorbed the light photons.

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The first compound microscopes date to 1590, but it was the Dutch Antony Van Leeuwenhoek in the mid-seventeenth century who first used them to make discoveries.

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Electrons don’t like being in an excited state. This means that after becoming excited and moving to a higher energy level, they soon fall back to their original energy level. However, to do this, they have to release a packet of energy – this is called a photon. The size of the photon released is exactly equal to the size of the jump the electron had to make in the first place.

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There are two types of emission spectroscopy: line and continuous. When the spectrum is shown as lots of lines separated by black spaces, it is a line emission spectrum. When the spectrum is shown as lots of colours in one particular wavelength, it is a continuous emission spectrum. Emission spectroscopy is used to identify a substance because the energy released when the electrons fall back to their ground state is different for every substance.

So some seventy years separated the invention of the microscope and “any systematic work of great and lasting scientific value.” Ball attributes this to the primitiveness of the early microscopes, which were very hard to use. Perhaps more importantly, she argues that the developing biological sciences, especially botany and anatomy—which would later benefit so much from magnification—were not advanced enough to realize “the significance of the observations made.”

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Rod lenses are cylindrical lenses used for beam collimation, focusing, and imaging. Their unique shape makes them suitable for specific optical applications.

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Compound microscopes eventually surpassed van Leeuwenhoek’s devices. And by the 1850s, they were both standard scientific equipment in labs and a pedagogical-entertainment standby in middle class Victorian homes, where the animalcules took on a life of their own.

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