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polarization: the attribute that wave oscillations have a definite direction relative to the direction of propagation of the wave

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Actually… yes. There are a couple of microbrands who offer watches that have a clear scratch-resistant coating on stainless steel. Off the top of my head, Straton Watches offered such a case… Heroic 18 was another one.

Figure 3. The transverse oscillations in one rope are in a vertical plane, and those in the other rope are in a horizontal plane. The first is said to be vertically polarized, and the other is said to be horizontally polarized. Vertical slits pass vertically polarized waves and block horizontally polarized waves.

In flat screen LCD televisions, there is a large light at the back of the TV. The light travels to the front screen through millions of tiny units called pixels (picture elements). One of these is shown in Figure 12 (a) and (b). Each unit has three cells, with red, blue, or green filters, each controlled independently. When the voltage across a liquid crystal is switched off, the liquid crystal passes the light through the particular filter. One can vary the picture contrast by varying the strength of the voltage applied to the liquid crystal.

Now, you may have also heard concerns about coatings and the truth behind their scratch resistance. While we have established that the DLC coating offers additional resistance to the scuffs and scrapes that everyday life may throw at it. But, what if you really give it some welly and whack it on a brick wall? Will the steel underneath peek out through the open wound? If so, it’d be pretty hard to miss, no?

Coating yes, but DLC as far as I am aware. For example RZE uses its clear Hex coating on its watches. RZE’s coating is a different PVD coating rather than DLC specifically. As far as I am aware the clear coats will use PVD or CVD as the coating process, but the coating is not DLC.

Figure 6 shows the effect of two polarizing filters on originally unpolarized light. The first filter polarizes the light along its axis. When the axes of the first and second filters are aligned (parallel), then all of the polarized light passed by the first filter is also passed by the second. If the second polarizing filter is rotated, only the component of the light parallel to the second filter’s axis is passed. When the axes are perpendicular, no light is passed by the second.

Watchmaker jargon can be difficult to understand. You read a review about a watch you’re interested in, but there are lots of words being used that don’t make a lot of sense. Sometimes in the watch industry, we forget that people of all experiences are trying to enjoy the same products. We can be a little non-inclusive when it comes to our vocabulary, instead preferring to stick to traditional verbiage rather than layman’s terms. So with that in mind, what is a DLC coating?

While you are undoubtedly aware of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) found in watches, calculators, computer screens, cellphones, flat screen televisions, and other myriad places, you may not be aware that they are based on polarization. Liquid crystals are so named because their molecules can be aligned even though they are in a liquid. Liquid crystals have the property that they can rotate the polarization of light passing through them by 90º. Furthermore, this property can be turned off by the application of a voltage, as illustrated in Figure 12. It is possible to manipulate this characteristic quickly and in small well-defined regions to create the contrast patterns we see in so many LCD devices.

And there you have it in a nutshell: DLC coatings 101. You can feel more confident knowing what you’re signing up for when buying a watch with a DLC coating. Do you already have watches with coatings in your collection? Tell me about them and how you’re getting on with them! I’m interested to hear about your experiences.

Figure 11. Polarization by scattering. Unpolarized light scattering from air molecules shakes their electrons perpendicular to the direction of the original ray. The scattered light therefore has a polarization perpendicular to the original direction and none parallel to the original direction.

Figure 8 illustrates what happens when unpolarized light is reflected from a surface. Vertically polarized light is preferentially refracted at the surface, so that the reflected light is left more horizontally polarized. The reasons for this phenomenon are beyond the scope of this text, but a convenient mnemonic for remembering this is to imagine the polarization direction to be like an arrow. Vertical polarization would be like an arrow perpendicular to the surface and would be more likely to stick and not be reflected. Horizontal polarization is like an arrow bouncing on its side and would be more likely to be reflected. Sunglasses with vertical axes would then block more reflected light than unpolarized light from other sources.

Sinn’s fully tegimented U2’s that are PVD/DLC’d look to be pretty industrious. I think that’s the only brand I would sorta trust if buying a fully DLC’d watch.

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Figure 9. Long molecules are aligned perpendicular to the axis of a polarizing filter. The component of the electric field in an EM wave perpendicular to these molecules passes through the filter, while the component parallel to the molecules is absorbed.

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Light is one type of electromagnetic (EM) wave. As noted earlier, EM waves are transverse waves consisting of varying electric and magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation (see Figure 2). There are specific directions for the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields. Polarization is the attribute that a wave’s oscillations have a definite direction relative to the direction of propagation of the wave. (This is not the same type of polarization as that discussed for the separation of charges.) Waves having such a direction are said to be polarized. For an EM wave, we define the direction of polarization to be the direction parallel to the electric field. Thus we can think of the electric field arrows as showing the direction of polarization, as in Figure 2.

Figure 8. Polarization by reflection. Unpolarized light has equal amounts of vertical and horizontal polarization. After interaction with a surface, the vertical components are preferentially absorbed or refracted, leaving the reflected light more horizontally polarized. This is akin to arrows striking on their sides bouncing off, whereas arrows striking on their tips go into the surface.

But: it`s still a coating! With the soft material behind, mostly 316L, it will come off by scratches, hits and so on. I`d rather use a decent hard steel though, and even 904 is ridiculous…

Figure 10. Artist’s conception of an electron in a long molecule oscillating parallel to the molecule. The oscillation of the electron absorbs energy and reduces the intensity of the component of the EM wave that is parallel to the molecule.

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Another interesting phenomenon associated with polarized light is the ability of some crystals to split an unpolarized beam of light into two. Such crystals are said to be birefringent (see Figure 15). Each of the separated rays has a specific polarization. One behaves normally and is called the ordinary ray, whereas the other does not obey Snell’s law and is called the extraordinary ray. Birefringent crystals can be used to produce polarized beams from unpolarized light. Some birefringent materials preferentially absorb one of the polarizations. These materials are called dichroic and can produce polarization by this preferential absorption. This is fundamentally how polarizing filters and other polarizers work. The interested reader is invited to further pursue the numerous properties of materials related to polarization.

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Figure 15. Birefringent materials, such as the common mineral calcite, split unpolarized beams of light into two. The ordinary ray behaves as expected, but the extraordinary ray does not obey Snell’s law.

Photographs of the sky can be darkened by polarizing filters, a trick used by many photographers to make clouds brighter by contrast. Scattering from other particles, such as smoke or dust, can also polarize light. Detecting polarization in scattered EM waves can be a useful analytical tool in determining the scattering source.

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Many crystals and solutions rotate the plane of polarization of light passing through them. Such substances are said to be optically active. Examples include sugar water, insulin, and collagen (see Figure 13). In addition to depending on the type of substance, the amount and direction of rotation depends on a number of factors. Among these is the concentration of the substance, the distance the light travels through it, and the wavelength of light. Optical activity is due to the asymmetric shape of molecules in the substance, such as being helical. Measurements of the rotation of polarized light passing through substances can thus be used to measure concentrations, a standard technique for sugars. It can also give information on the shapes of molecules, such as proteins, and factors that affect their shapes, such as temperature and pH.

Polaroid sunglasses are familiar to most of us. They have a special ability to cut the glare of light reflected from water or glass (see Figure 1). Polaroids have this ability because of a wave characteristic of light called polarization. What is polarization? How is it produced? What are some of its uses? The answers to these questions are related to the wave character of light.

DLC is an abbreviation, so if you’ve been trying in vain to form some kind of weird word out of those three consonants, you can stop. DLC stands for “diamond-like carbon”. As the name suggests, DLC coatings use carbon to achieve a diamond-like layer. Sounds fancy, right? Well, like diamonds, a DLC coating is actually harder than raw steel. In turn, that means that watches with a DLC coating benefit from increased durability and scratch resistance. Despite only being a few microns thick, a DLC coating is pretty badass. By way of reference, a human hair is, on average, 50-70 microns thick. The average DLC coating is around 2-4 microns thick. All that strength and protection in a barely-there layer of… Well, what actually is it?

17. (a) 2.07 × 10−2 °C/s; (b) Yes, the polarizing filters get hot because they absorb some of the lost energy from the sunlight.

Since the part of the light that is not reflected is refracted, the amount of polarization depends on the indices of refraction of the media involved. It can be shown that reflected light is completely polarized at a angle of reflection θb, given by [latex]\tan\theta_{\text{b}}=\frac{n_2}{n_1}\\[/latex], where n1 is the medium in which the incident and reflected light travel and n2 is the index of refraction of the medium that forms the interface that reflects the light. This equation is known as Brewster’s law, and θb is known as Brewster’s angle, named after the 19th-century Scottish physicist who discovered them.

Figure 7. A polarizing filter transmits only the component of the wave parallel to its axis, , reducing the intensity of any light not polarized parallel to its axis.

Only the component of the EM wave parallel to the axis of a filter is passed. Let us call the angle between the direction of polarization and the axis of a filter θ. If the electric field has an amplitude E, then the transmitted part of the wave has an amplitude E cos θ (see Figure 7). Since the intensity of a wave is proportional to its amplitude squared, the intensity I of the transmitted wave is related to the incident wave by I = I0 cos2 θ, where I0 is the intensity of the polarized wave before passing through the filter. (The above equation is known as Malus’s law.)

A fairly large angle between the direction of polarization and the filter axis is needed to reduce the intensity to 10.0% of its original value. This seems reasonable based on experimenting with polarizing films. It is interesting that, at an angle of 45º, the intensity is reduced to 50% of its original value (as you will show in this section’s Problems & Exercises). Note that 71.6º is 18.4º from reducing the intensity to zero, and that at an angle of 18.4º the intensity is reduced to 90.0% of its original value (as you will also show in Problems & Exercises), giving evidence of symmetry.

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Figure 12. (a) Polarized light is rotated 90º by a liquid crystal and then passed by a polarizing filter that has its axis perpendicular to the original polarization direction. (b) When a voltage is applied to the liquid crystal, the polarized light is not rotated and is blocked by the filter, making the region dark in comparison with its surroundings. (c) LCDs can be made color specific, small, and fast enough to use in laptop computers and TVs. (credit: Jon Sullivan)

The coating is formed of vaporized solid materials with a typical PVD process, bound to the watch casing in layers inside a heated vacuum chamber. Depending on the type of material used to coat the watch case, different colors can be achieved, DLC uses carbon as the coating solid, so it only comes in shades of black. Vaporized carbon atoms are blasted onto the watch and cooled down very quickly. So, to attempt to clarify, DLC is a coating applied using a PVD process. Got that? Excellent work — A+.

The Sun and many other light sources produce waves that are randomly polarized (see Figure 4). Such light is said to be unpolarized because it is composed of many waves with all possible directions of polarization. Polaroid materials, invented by the founder of Polaroid Corporation, Edwin Land, act as a polarizing slit for light, allowing only polarization in one direction to pass through. Polarizing filters are composed of long molecules aligned in one direction. Thinking of the molecules as many slits, analogous to those for the oscillating ropes, we can understand why only light with a specific polarization can get through. The axis of a polarizing filter is the direction along which the filter passes the electric field of an EM wave (see Figure 5).

Figure 13. Optical activity is the ability of some substances to rotate the plane of polarization of light passing through them. The rotation is detected with a polarizing filter or analyzer.

Well, with some types of PVD coating, this is potentially a legitimate concern. It can and does happen. Over time, the black coating will scratch, and you will see the exposed steel. But, fear not, with the DLC coating, things are a bit different. Thanks to the diamond-like properties of a DLC coating, you don’t have to worry about this happening to your watch. The coating stays put and does not wear off anywhere as quickly as a more conventional PVD-type coating. That’s not to say that you’ll never be able to damage it, so don’t actively try to test this out. It just means that a DLC coating is considerably more protective and hard than other lesser coatings.

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What angle is needed between the direction of polarized light and the axis of a polarizing filter to reduce its intensity by 90.0%?

So I’m yet to find any real conclusive proof of this technique being used for case coating in watchmaking (and I haven’t received a response from the brands I’ve contacted asking them to clarify the term “gold DLC”) but I found this interesting and wanted to share it with the community as part of our ongoing quest for truth:

When the intensity is reduced by 90.0%, it is 10.0% or 0.100 times its original value. That is, I = 0.100I0. Using this information, the equation I = I0 cos2 θ can be used to solve for the needed angle.

There is a range of optical effects used in sunglasses. Besides being Polaroid, other sunglasses have colored pigments embedded in them, while others use non-reflective or even reflective coatings. A recent development is photochromic lenses, which darken in the sunlight and become clear indoors. Photochromic lenses are embedded with organic microcrystalline molecules that change their properties when exposed to UV in sunlight, but become clear in artificial lighting with no UV.

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Estimated refractive indexes show well agreements among almost all Si–DLC coatings, instead of the differences of coating conditions. Generally, the longer coating time or slower coating process makes the higher refractive index in near infrared region. Estimated band gap of a Si–DLC coating was about 1.5 eV. The developed Si–DLC coatings must be useful as not only protective but also decorative coatings.”

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Glass and plastic become optically active when stressed; the greater the stress, the greater the effect. Optical stress analysis on complicated shapes can be performed by making plastic models of them and observing them through crossed filters, as seen in Figure 14. It is apparent that the effect depends on wavelength as well as stress. The wavelength dependence is sometimes also used for artistic purposes.

Figure 5. A polarizing filter has a polarization axis that acts as a slit passing through electric fields parallel to its direction. The direction of polarization of an EM wave is defined to be the direction of its electric field.

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Figure 1. These two photographs of a river show the effect of a polarizing filter in reducing glare in light reflected from the surface of water. Part (b) of this Figure was taken with a polarizing filter and part (a) was not. As a result, the reflection of clouds and sky observed in part (a) is not observed in part (b). Polarizing sunglasses are particularly useful on snow and water. (credit: Amithshs, Wikimedia Commons)

Figure 14. Optical stress analysis of a plastic lens placed between crossed polarizers. (credit: Infopro, Wikimedia Commons)

[latex]\tan\theta_{\text{b}}=\frac{n_2}{n_1}\\[/latex] gives [latex]\tan\theta_{\text{b}}=\frac{n_2}{n_1}=\frac{1.333}{1.00}=1.333\\[/latex].

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Figure 4. The slender arrow represents a ray of unpolarized light. The bold arrows represent the direction of polarization of the individual waves composing the ray. Since the light is unpolarized, the arrows point in all directions.

As we already know, DLC stands for diamond-like carbon, and that’s precisely what it is — carbon. DLC is applied to the watch case using a PVD process. What’s that? Another abbreviation? Don’t you know it! The chances are that you’ve also come across PVD in your journey through the world of watches. To make things more confusing, it’s not uncommon to see the two terms used interchangeably when they are not one and the same. PVD stands for “Physical Vapor Deposition”, and it is not a coating itself. Instead, it is a process of applying a coating.

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Sinn’s fully tegimented U2’s that are PVD/DLC’d look to be pretty industrious. I think that’s the only brand I would sorta trust if buying a fully DLC’d watch.

Jul 26, 2023 — To calculate a magnification magnitude, divide the distance of the image created by the lens from the distance of the object to the lens.

To examine this further, consider the transverse waves in the ropes shown in Figure 3. The oscillations in one rope are in a vertical plane and are said to be vertically polarized. Those in the other rope are in a horizontal plane and are horizontally polarized. If a vertical slit is placed on the first rope, the waves pass through. However, a vertical slit blocks the horizontally polarized waves. For EM waves, the direction of the electric field is analogous to the disturbances on the ropes.

Figure 6. The effect of rotating two polarizing filters, where the first polarizes the light. (a) All of the polarized light is passed by the second polarizing filter, because its axis is parallel to the first. (b) As the second is rotated, only part of the light is passed. (c) When the second is perpendicular to the first, no light is passed. (d) In this photograph, a polarizing filter is placed above two others. Its axis is perpendicular to the filter on the right (dark area) and parallel to the filter on the left (lighter area). (credit: P.P. Urone)

A neutral density filter, or ND filter, is a physical filter made of resin or glass that attaches to the front of your lens. They can be used on film or digital ...

Traditionally, watches are made of metal. Sure, there are watches made from non-metal materials, but usually, nine times out of ten, the watches we see are made of some kind of metal. Of those metal watches, the vast majority are made of good old stainless steel. Steel is usually a silvery/metallic color, right? Of course it is! I know that’s a stupidly obvious statement, but bear with me. What happens when brands want to make a watch with the benefits of a metal case but in a non-traditional metal color? Well, that’s where we get into the realms of coatings.

Find Polaroid sunglasses and rotate one while holding the other still and look at different surfaces and objects. Explain your observations. What is the difference in angle from when you see a maximum intensity to when you see a minimum intensity? Find a reflective glass surface and do the same. At what angle does the glass need to be oriented to give minimum glare?

Many different coatings are available to brands, each with its own quirks, benefits, and negatives. Today, I’m looking at one of the most common coatings, which is DLC. Whether you realize it or not, you will most likely have seen a DLC coating on a watch before. Do you know those stealthy, all-black cased watches? The chances are, they use a DLC coating to get that blacker-than-black finish. However, the real question is, “What is a DLC coating, and how does it work?”

“Diamond-like carbon (DLC) is widely used because of its good properties. However, the color of DLC is usually dark brown or black. Recently, we have made fairly transparent Si contained DLC (Si–DLC) coatings in visible light region. The fairly transparent Si–DLC was made by using our original bi-polar pulse type plasma based ion implantation (PBII) system, with recently introduced high slew rate pulse power supply. The colors of metal sample surface were uniformly changed as subdued red, yellow, subdued green and subdued blue or violet, with the change of Si–DLC coating’s thickness. The colors come from the interference between reflected lights at the surface of the Si–DLC coatings and the surface of the metal samples. The colors were also changed with the angle of glancing.

All we need to solve these problems are the indices of refraction. Air has n1 = 1.00, water has n2 = 1.333, and crown glass has n′2=1.520. The equation [latex]\tan\theta_{\text{b}}=\frac{n_2}{n_1}\\[/latex] can be directly applied to find θb in each case.

Brewster’s law: [latex]\tan\theta_{\text{b}}=\frac{{n}_{2}}{{n}_{1}}\\[/latex], where n1 is the medium in which the incident and reflected light travel and n2 is the index of refraction of the medium that forms the interface that reflects the light

Figure 2. An EM wave, such as light, is a transverse wave. The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

We’re actually doing a fair bit of research into this question because while the prevailing wisdom suggested DLC is always dark gray or black, some brands have started offering “Gold DLC”. The emergence of other carbon-based coating technologies could potentially further muddle the answer. We’re going to get a direct response from the brands communicating their recent coatings as Gold DLC to see what the heck is going on there, and then we’ll dive deeper into futuristic coating technologies more next year (we have some interesting, first-hand research projects coming up).

If you hold your Polaroid sunglasses in front of you and rotate them while looking at blue sky, you will see the sky get bright and dim. This is a clear indication that light scattered by air is partially polarized. Figure 11 helps illustrate how this happens. Since light is a transverse EM wave, it vibrates the electrons of air molecules perpendicular to the direction it is traveling. The electrons then radiate like small antennae. Since they are oscillating perpendicular to the direction of the light ray, they produce EM radiation that is polarized perpendicular to the direction of the ray. When viewing the light along a line perpendicular to the original ray, as in Figure 11, there can be no polarization in the scattered light parallel to the original ray, because that would require the original ray to be a longitudinal wave. Along other directions, a component of the other polarization can be projected along the line of sight, and the scattered light will only be partially polarized. Furthermore, multiple scattering can bring light to your eyes from other directions and can contain different polarizations.

Brewster’s angle: [latex]{\theta }_{\text{b}}={\tan}^{-1}\left(\frac{{n}_{2}}{{n}_{1}}\right)\\[/latex], where n2 is the index of refraction of the medium from which the light is reflected and n1 is the index of refraction of the medium in which the reflected light travels

By now you can probably guess that Polaroid sunglasses cut the glare in reflected light because that light is polarized. You can check this for yourself by holding Polaroid sunglasses in front of you and rotating them while looking at light reflected from water or glass. As you rotate the sunglasses, you will notice the light gets bright and dim, but not completely black. This implies the reflected light is partially polarized and cannot be completely blocked by a polarizing filter.

Polarizing filters have a polarization axis that acts as a slit. This slit passes electromagnetic waves (often visible light) that have an electric field parallel to the axis. This is accomplished with long molecules aligned perpendicular to the axis as shown in Figure 9.

Light reflected at these angles could be completely blocked by a good polarizing filter held with its axis vertical. Brewster’s angle for water and air are similar to those for glass and air, so that sunglasses are equally effective for light reflected from either water or glass under similar circumstances. Light not reflected is refracted into these media. So at an incident angle equal to Brewster’s angle, the refracted light will be slightly polarized vertically. It will not be completely polarized vertically, because only a small fraction of the incident light is reflected, and so a significant amount of horizontally polarized light is refracted.

Figure 10 illustrates how the component of the electric field parallel to the long molecules is absorbed. An electromagnetic wave is composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The electric field is strong compared with the magnetic field and is more effective in exerting force on charges in the molecules. The most affected charged particles are the electrons in the molecules, since electron masses are small. If the electron is forced to oscillate, it can absorb energy from the EM wave. This reduces the fields in the wave and, hence, reduces its intensity. In long molecules, electrons can more easily oscillate parallel to the molecule than in the perpendicular direction. The electrons are bound to the molecule and are more restricted in their movement perpendicular to the molecule. Thus, the electrons can absorb EM waves that have a component of their electric field parallel to the molecule. The electrons are much less responsive to electric fields perpendicular to the molecule and will allow those fields to pass. Thus the axis of the polarizing filter is perpendicular to the length of the molecule.