Finally, makers have to assemble the integrated circuit and create the finished product. However, before they can do that, the wafer will need to go through the lithographic process. This procedure is vital in guaranteeing the performance of the resulting chip in its intended application.

The optical microscope magnifies an object in two steps. In both steps optical systems acting like converging lenses are used. The two components are used in two of the above mentioned situations:

Some experts in the semiconductor industry say that implementing Moore’s Law in the next generation of computer processors will be challenging. The current technology for photolithography, Deep Ultraviolet Lithography (DUVL), uses a 193-nanometer wavelength for its light rays. Â

When reproducing this experiment with different types of converging lenses, one will discover that the focal length mainly depends on the curvature of the lens. In fact, a smaller radius of the curvature results in a shorter focal length. Another fact will be discovered: lenses with a large diameter are more  “effective”  than those with a smaller one. With this conclusion we have already defined two of the most important benchmark data of a lens: focal length and opening (diameter).

A hint for practical use: the eye has to be placed a short distance above the microscope. Technically speaking, the pupil of our eye has to be located at the same place as the exit pupil of the microscope. This exit pupil can be easily seen when the light intensity of the microscope illumination is increased. It is the bright narrow spot visible above the eyepiece.

Moore’s Law is apparent in the design of Intel’s processors throughout the decades. The Pentium 4 single-core processors, which dominated the market from 2000 to 2008, had 42 million transistors. It was a leap compared to its predecessor, the Pentium 3, with only 28 million transistors in its chipset. Â

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In this case a virtual image, not a real one, is generated. The rays will leave the lens in a parallel manner. No image can be found unless we use another optical system e.g. our eye, which follows the conditions of case 1.

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Every chip and motherboard has embedded integrated circuits arranged in a specific manner. Assemblers at the manufacturing facility will need to have a circuit board to ensure the correct placement of each component. Â

The above descriptions and diagrams have been simplified for easier understanding of basic optical principles. In reality, nearly all imaging elements consist of more than one lens. The above drawings present the optical element as an idealized “thin lens”. After exploring these standard situations of single-step imaging, we will now implement these findings into a two-step optical instrument: the compound microscope.

Hence, silicon manufacturing companies use progressively shorter wavelengths, exemplifying Moore’s Law in the context of light emissions. Every new generation of microprocessors makes giant leaps in performance compared to the products that preceded them in the market. Â

EUVL’s research and development has been around since the 1970s. The tech traces its roots to R&D for X-ray lithography, which scientists later concluded to be too expensive. The study ceased in 1980, but engineers continued to play with X-ray lithography until they discovered EUVL, which they initially called the “soft X-ray.”

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However, things appear to be looking up. ASML announced last year that they are completing the final component that will make the next-generation EUV machine functional by this year. Afterwards, the company expects Intel to build the hardware’s first batch of chips and release them in 2023. Â

This situation produces an image that is smaller than the object (approx. one 100th of the size of the original object).

2018105 — Köhler illumination is a microscope alignment technique that ensures images are evenly illuminated and at maximum resolution.

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The technology would only enter the spotlight after Intel and Samsung announced in 2018 their adoption of EUV for their latest chips. Both companies said that their next chips will be made using EUV at a wavelength of 7 nanometers. EUV eventually encountered several hurdles that delayed the mass production of the lithographic machines.

As the regular output of an optical microscope is a beam of parallel rays, a real image has to be produced first. Luckily, standard compact digital cameras include a lens (called objective) as our eye does. This lens can cope with objects at very far distances. Photographers call this distance "infinity". In other terms: rays from these objects reach us in a parallel manner.

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Before exploring how such a lens works, crucial terms and definitions of a lens have to be clarified. Everybody who ever (mis)used a magnifying glass as a burning glass has discovered that a lens creates a “hot spot” when pointed at the sun. This point is called the focal point. The distance from the center of the lens to this focal point is called focal length.

The wavelength of light used in lithography is crucial. Shorter wavelengths are known for their higher frequencies and more robust energy levels. In the context of lithography, light rays with short wavelengths make more powerful processors possible by engraving more transistors into the wafer. Â

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Personal computers and laptops are not the only electronic devices to harness the benefits of EUVL chips. Smartphones, smartwatches and tablets can take full advantage of these advances. These gadgets use processors and ICs denser than those used by PCs given their size. Mobile device makers can cram even more transistors with EUVL without changing the dimensions of their products.

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The first step in lithography is to prepare the mask. The mask will have the draft of the circuit pattern that will then be transferred to the silicon wafer. An emitter passes light through optical lenses that resize the design to fit into the mask. Â

This position creates an image of the object which is the same size as the object itself (reproduction scale 1:1). The image is found at a position twice the focal length from the rear side of the lens. By the way, this is the shortest overall distance you can have from object to image.

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The optical microscope has been a standard tool in life science as well as material science for more than one and a half centuries now. To use this tool economically and effectively, it helps a lot to understand the basics of optics, especially of those essential components which are part of every microscope.

Lenses are more common in optical microscopes; therefore we will concentrate on lenses in the following exploration of the basic microscope functions. Concave mirrors are used for imaging purposes in reflective telescopes. Very often, concave mirrors are also used for illumination, like headlights in automotive applications.

Once the wafer is evenly coated with the photoresist, the makers will expose the mask and semiconductor to ultraviolet light. The photoresist is sensitive to UV radiation and will harden around the pattern. The light will hit only the mask, and any areas with photoresist not covered will remain in liquid form to be removed later.

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The next step is to project or transfer the circuit pattern to the wafer itself. Manufacturers will first coat the silicon wafer with a liquid plastic called a photoresist. They will need 1 mL to 1.5 mL of the solution. They will also require a pressure clamp, which will secure the wafer. The semiconductor is attached to the clamp and spun at high RPMs. At the same time, the photoresist solution is poured onto its surface.

EUVL’s most apparent drawback is in its maintenance and upkeep. Lithographic machines are enormous. Its components are connected by about 40 kilometers of cables crammed into a bus-sized case. For now, 13.5 nanometers is the standard wavelength, while engineers study ways to shrink it further to 7 nanometers and below. This research will require immense funding, and results remain uncertain.

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This guide will have to be printed onto the surface of the wafer, and that is where lithography or photolithography helps. The process embeds the geometric shapes on the wafer to aid manufacturers in building the electronic device. Also, the type of lithography used directly influences how many transistors workers can fit into a single silicon wafer.

Optical instruments like microscopes, telescopes and binoculars use optical elements to produce an image of an object. The two most common elements for imaging objects are the converging lens and the concave mirror.

However, the Pentium processors pale compared to the latest Core i7, 12700k, with billions of transistors. Intel even announced in 2021 that its Ponte Vecchio artificial intelligence chip will have 100 billion transistors.

Silicon manufacturing involves multiple processes. First, builders must grow the wafer from a silicon crystal through the Float Zone or Czochralski method. The growth process also includes doping, which introduces substances to the wafer to enhance its conductivity. Â

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In this case parallel rays from the object to the lens are assumed. These are redirected in the lens to meet in the plane of the rear focal point and generate an image in the plane of the focal point.

Silicon manufacturing companies will have to find ways to surpass 100 billion transistors, given the limits of DUVL. That’s where Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography (EUVL) could be ideal.

There is an important detail to take into consideration when talking about image generation: There are two “pivotal points” strictly linked to every lens: the focal points (one before and one behind the lens).

To simplify the handling of the lens diameter it is generally expressed in relation to the focal length. In the field of microscopy this parameter is called aperture (also: numerical aperture NA). Numerical aperture is defined NA = n sin α, where n is the refractive index of the medium filling the space between the object and the lens, and α is the half-angle of the maximum cone of light that can enter the lens (Figure 3). Photographers define the aperture of an objective by its f number. This is defined as the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the lens (N = f/D) (Figure 4). In contrast to the NA value, small f numbers indicate a large aperture.

EUVL’s most significant advantage over DUVL is its shorter wavelength. The 193-nanometer wavelength is roughly ten times longer than the 13.5-nanometer length of EUV lithograph machines. The extremely short wavelength makes it possible to produce integrated circuits 10 times denser and 10 times more efficient than chips made using DUVL.

When placing a compact camera behind the microscope’s eyepiece we are able to photograph through the microscope. To avoid frustration: the results obtained with this combination are very limited. This is because the optical design of compact cameras does not have microscopes in mind. Several dimensions (diameters, distances) limit practical use. Therefore dedicated digital cameras designed for the special conditions of optical microscopes are available for different applications.

Again: What makes the image of an object sometimes smaller and sometimes larger than the object? The answer is: With a given focal length it is the relative distance that defines the size!

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In 1965, Gordon Moore said that he expected microprocessors to become more powerful every two years by doubling the number of transistors in the motherboard, processor and peripherals. Gordon later established Intel Corporation, one of the leading semiconductor companies until today. Intel’s technology would be heavily influenced by Moore’s observations. Â

Correct positioning becomes particularly important when viewing with both eyes using a binocular tube. The distance between the two eyepieces has to be adjusted accurately to match the distance of the eyes.