Pin outwiring diagram

Darkfield is a simple, yet effective microscopy technique. It is well-suited for live biological samples and industrial samples. Some examples include looking at cells, single-celled organisms, starch grains, crystals, polymers, and films.

One common example of an ADC is Voice over IP (VoIP). Every smartphone has a microphone that converts sound waves (voice) into analog voltage. This goes through the device’s ADC, gets converted into digital data, which is transmitted to the receiving side over the internet.

Serial communication is used to exchange data between the Arduino board and another serial device such as computers, displays, sensors and more. Each Arduino board has at least one serial port. Serial communication occurs on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX) as well as via USB. Arduino supports serial communication through digital pins with the SoftwareSerial Library as well. This allows the user to connect multiple serial-enabled devices and leave the main serial port available for the USB.

In Arduino, the PWM enabled pins produce a constant frequency of ~ 500Hz, while the duty cycle changes according to the parameters set by the user. See the following illustration:

Software serial and hardware serial - Most microcontrollers have hardware designed to communicate with other serial devices. Software serial ports use a pin-change interrupt system to communicate. There is a built-in library for Software Serial communication. Software serial is used by the processor to simulate extra serial ports. The only drawback with software serial is that it requires more processing and cannot support the same high speeds as hardware serial.

I2C is a communication protocol commonly referred to as the “I2C bus”. The I2C protocol was designed to enable communication between components on a single circuit board. With I2C there are 2 wires referred to as SCL and SDA.

The power source you use determines the power you have available for your circuit. For instance, powering the circuit using the USB limits you to 500mA. Take into consideration that this is also used for powering the MCU, its peripherals, the on-board regulators, and the components connected to it. When powering your circuit through the barrel jack or VIN, the maximum capacity available is determined by the 5 and 3.3 volts regulators on-board the Arduino.

SPI - SS/SCK/MISO/MOSI pins are the dedicated pins for SPI communication. They can be found on digital pins 10-13 of the Arduino Uno and on the ICSP headers.

What is darkfield and brightfield microscopy? It sounds like something out of Star Wars! But, unfortunately neither gives us special powers. That doesn’t mean that darkfield and brightfield microscopy aren’t still fascinating.

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ICSP stands for In-Circuit Serial Programming. The name originated from In-System Programming headers (ISP). Manufacturers like Atmel who work with Arduino have developed their own in-circuit serial programming headers. These pins enable the user to program the Arduino boards’ firmware. There are six ICSP pins available on the Arduino board that can be hooked to a programmer device via a programming cable.

“Pinout of ARDUINO Board and ATMega328PU” by pighixxx is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International

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Learn about microscopy applications and Nuhsbaum’s history of exceptional microscope sales, service, and support of top microscope brands.

In a range of techniques for illuminating samples in light microscopes, brightfield and its simplicity makes it a popular technique. The typical appearance of a brightfield image is a dark, true color sample on a bright, white background, hence the name.

The ZEISS Primostar 3 and ZEISS Axiolab 5 compound microscopes are perfect for brightfield microscopy. Equipped with a mechanical stage to accommodate two specimen slides and labelled Abbe condenser, the Primostar and Axiolab can be configured with rotatable binocular tubes for shared viewing and easy storage. An integrated camera or trinocular tube with camera can be added so you can go digital.

The Arduino Uno Microcontroller is one of the most versatile boards on the market today and that’s why we decided to focus on it in this guide. This guide displays most of its capabilities, but there are also more advanced options which we did not go into in this post.

Both light and electron microscopy use darkfield microscopy methods. It excludes un-scattered light from the image to produce high-contrast images. As a result, the field around the specimen is dark because there is no specimen to scatter the light beam. Yes, you read that right! We can both illuminate the subject and darken the background… without actually shining light on the sample!

I2C - SCL/SDA pins are the dedicated pins for I2C communication. On the Arduino Uno they are found on Analog pins A4 and A5.

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However, one limitation of darkfield is the low light levels seen in the final image. Since darkfield is caused by literally inserting a dark ring to block direct light, the light source must be at maximum intensity to get a darkfield image seen through the oculars. Looking at a black screen? Camera settings, like exposure time and gain, can increase to brighten the digital image on the monitor..

Brightfield microscopy is the simplest of all the optical microscopy lighting techniques. To get better contrast in the image on dense areas of the sample, simply increase the transmitted light intensity. Then dial in the aperture on the condenser either up or down until the image looks good.

In general, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. A PWM is comprised of two key components:  frequency and duty cycle. The PWM frequency dictates how long it takes to complete a single cycle (period) and how quickly the signal fluctuates from high to low. The duty cycle determines how long a signal stays high out of the total period. Duty cycle is represented in percentage.

Pinout electronics

When connecting a component to a digital pin, make sure that the logic levels match. If the voltage is in between the thresholds, the returning value will be undefined.

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When the digital pins are configured as input, the voltage is supplied from an external device. This voltage can vary between 0-5 volts which is converted into digital representation (0 or 1). To determine this, there are 2 thresholds:

In our last two posts, we focused on the software aspects of the Arduino. We saw that Arduino boards are programmed using a language derived from C and C++ in Arduino's Integrated Development Environment  (IDE) and learned a few basic debugging methods. In this post, we'll be taking a closer look at the Arduino hardware, and more specifically, the Arduino Uno pinout. Arduino Uno is based on the ATmega328 by Atmel. The Arduino Uno pinout consists of 14 digital pins, 6 analog inputs, a power jack, USB connection and ICSP header. The versatility of the pinout provides many different options such as driving motors, LEDs, reading sensors and more. In this post, we’ll go over the capabilities of the Arduino Uno pinout.

External Interrupt - An external interrupt is a system interrupt that occurs when outside interference is present. Interference can come from the user or other hardware devices in the network. Common uses for these interrupts in Arduino are reading the frequency a square wave generated by encoders or waking up the processor upon an external event.

The GND pins are used to close the electrical circuit and provide a common logic reference level throughout your circuit. Always make sure that all GNDs (of the Arduino, peripherals and components) are connected to one another and have a common ground.

There are two external interrupt pins on the ATmega168/328 called INT0 and INT1. both INT0 and INT1 are mapped to pins 2 and 3. In contrast, Pin Change interrupts can be activated on any of the pins.

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There is a polarity protection diode connecting between the positive of the barrel jack to the VIN pin, rated at 1 Ampere.

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a serial data protocol used by microcontrollers to communicate with one or more external devices in a bus like connection. The SPI can also be used to connect 2 microcontrollers. On the SPI bus, there is always one device that is denoted as a Master device and all the rest as Slaves. In most cases, the microcontroller is the Master device. The SS (Slave Select) pin determines which device the Master is currently communicating with.

Arduino Pins A0-A5 are capable of reading analog voltages. On Arduino the ADC has 10-bit resolution, meaning it can represent analog voltage by 1,024 digital levels. The ADC converts voltage into bits which the microprocessor can understand.

Digital is a way of representing voltage in 1 bit: either 0 or 1. Digital pins on the Arduino are pins designed to be configured as inputs or outputs according to the needs of the user. Digital pins are either on or off. When ON they are in a HIGH voltage state of 5V and when OFF they are in a LOW voltage state of 0V.

The important thing to know when you choose a board for your project is its capabilities and limitations. It’s also important to understand the different communication protocols that the board uses. Of course, you don’t need to remember all of this information, you can always go back to this post and read the relevant information for you (this is a good time to bookmark this post btw).

If you have any comments or questions, you are welcome to write them below and of course, feel free to share this post with your Arduino-loving friends

Darkfield and brightfield microscopy are contrast-enhancement techniques in light microscopy. In simple terms, they are techniques that allow us to better see our specimens. Brightfield microscopy is the conventional technique. It is suitable for observing the natural colors of a specimen. It can also observe stained samples. The specimen appears darker on a bright background. Darkfield microscopy shows just the opposite. The specimen shows up bright on a dark background.

However, there are limitations. Given the nature of most biological samples, there is very low contrast and the image can look a bit whitewashed. Moreover, the limit to brightfield microscopy is around 1300X, which may not be suitable for some cases. For more contrast, try dialing down the aperture. Otherwise, phase contrast is another brightfield technique that can help.

ADC stands for Analog to Digital Converter. ADC is an electronic circuit used to convert analog signals into digital signals. This digital representation of analog signals allows the processor (which is a digital device) to measure the analog signal and use it through its operation.