Kwache JB, Ntekim EE (2015) The geology of Dumne area in southeastern Hawal Massif, northeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Science and Research, 4(11): 2477–2482.

Berlin (2020) Berlin 3D—download portal. https://www.businesslocationcenter.de/en/economic-atlas/download-portal/ . Accessed 23 Sept 2020

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Held R, Efstathiou A, Greene M (1966) Adaptation to displaced and delayed visual feedback from the hand. J Exp Psychol 72(6):887–891. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023868

Büyüksalih, Gürcan; Kan, Tuna; Özkan, Gözde Enç; Meriç, Müge; Isın, Lale; Kersten, Thomas P. Preserving the Knowledge of the Past Through Virtual Visits: From 3D Laser Scanning to Virtual Reality Visualisation at the Istanbul Çatalca İnceğiz Caves. PFG – Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-020-00091-3

De Oliveira Andrades Filho C, De FáTima Rossetti D (2011) Effectiveness of SRTM and ALOS-PALSAR data for identifying morphostructural lineaments in northeastern Brazil. Int J Remote Sens 33(4):1058–1077. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2010.549852.

Liu X, Liang X, Li X, Xu X, Ou J, Chen Y, Li S, Wang S, Pei F (2017) A future land use simulation model (FLUS) for simulating multiple land use scenarios by coupling human and natural effects. Landsc Urban Plan 168:94–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.09.019 (Accessed on 8/6/2020)

Abdelkarim, Ashraf; Alogayell, Haya M.; Alkadi, Ibtesam I.; Youssef, Ismail Spatial–temporal prediction model for land cover of the rural–urban continuum axis between Ar-Riyadh and Al-Kharj cities in KSA in the year of 2030 using the integration of CA–Markov model, GIS-MCA, and AHP. Applied Geomatics (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-022-00448-w

Nwilo, Peter C.; Okolie, Chukwuma J.; Onyegbula, Johanson C.; Arungwa, Ikenna D.; Ayoade, Owolabi Q.; Daramola, Olagoke E.; Orji, Michael J.; Maduako, Ikechukwu D.; Uyo, Imeime I. Positional accuracy assessment of historical Google Earth imagery in Lagos State, Nigeria. Applied Geomatics (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-022-00449-9

Goudarzi MA, Landry R (2017) Assessing horizontal positional accuracy of Google Earth Imagery in the city of Montreal, Canada. GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY Taylor & Francis Group ISSN 2029–6991 / eISSN 2029–7009 2017 Volume 43(2): 56–65 https://doi.org/10.3846/20296991.2017.1330767

Wlodarczyk-Sielicka M, Stateczny A (2016) Comparison of Selected Reduction Methods of Bathymetric Data Obtained by Multibeam Echosounder. 2016 BALTIC GEODETIC CONGRESS (BGC GEOMATICS) pp 73–77

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Petty, Z.; Landrieu, J.; Coulais, J. F.; Père, C.; de Ganay, O. Space and time scaling issues in data management: the virtual restitution of Cluniac heritage. Applied Geomatics (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-012-0086-0

Grussenmeyer P, Landes T, Alby E, Carozza L (2010) High resolution 3D recording and modelling of the Bronze Age cave “Les Fraux” in Périgord (France). Int Arch Photogramm Remote Sens Spat Inf Sci 38:262–267

Ball E (1980) An example of a very consistent brittle deformation over a wide intracontinental area: The late Pan African system of the Tuareg and Nigerian shield. Tectonophysics 61:363–379.

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Chigbu N, Okezie M, Arungwa ID, Ogba C (2019) Comparative analysis of Google Earth derived elevation with in-situ total station method for engineering constructions, 17p. FIG Working Week 2019 Geospatial information for a smarter life and environmental resilience Hanoi, Vietnam, April 22–26, 2019

Wlodarczyk-Sielicka M, Lubczonek J, Stateczny A (2016) Comparison of Selected Clustering Algorithms of Raw Data Obtained by Interferometric Methods Using Artificial Neural Networks. 17th International radar symposium (IRS), book series: International radar symposium proceedings

Kühne O (2020) landscape conflicts: a theoretical approach based on the three worlds theory of Karl Popper and the conflict theory of ralf dahrendorf, illustrated by the example of the energy system transformation in Germany. Sustain Sci Pract Policy 12(17):S. 1-20

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Ferre E, Gleizes G, Caby R (2002) Obliquely convergent tectonics and granite emplacement in the Trans-Saharan belt of eastern Nigeria: a synthesis. Precambrian Research 114:199–219.

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Kühne, Olaf Potentials of the Three Spaces Theory for Understandings of Cartography, Virtual Realities, and Augmented Spaces. KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42489-021-00089-w

DigitaleStadt (2019) Strategie-Schwerpunkt Digitale Stadt. Organisation und Informatik der Stadt Zürich. https://www.stadt-zuerich.ch/fd/de/index/informatik/strategien-und-ssp/strategieschwerpunkte-2018.html .Accessed 12 Oct 2019

Zhang, Junwei; Senousi, Ahmad M.; Zhao, Pengxiang; Law, Stephen; Liu, Xintao Exploring 3D spatial morphology using multilayered space syntax, network science and wi-fi log data. Urban Informatics (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44212-023-00023-7

Edler D, Kühne O, Jenal C, Vetter M, Dickmann F (2018) Potenziale der Raumvisualisierung in Virtual Reality (VR) für die sozialkonstruktivistische Landschaftsforschung. KN J Cartogr Geogr Inf 68(5):S. 245-254

Rishikeshan CA, Katiyar SK, Mahesh VN, Vishnu. (2014) Detailed evaluation of DEM interpolation methods in GIS using DGPS data. 2014 6th International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks. pp 666–671

Liamis, Theodoros; Mimis, Angelos Establishing Semantic 3D City Models by GRextADE: the Case of the Greece. Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41651-022-00114-0

Deggim S, Kersten T, Lindstaedt M, Hinrichsen N (2017a) The return of the Siegesburg—3D-reconstruction of a disappeared and forgotten monument. In: Aguilera D, Georgopoulos A, Kersten T, Remondino F, Stathopoulou E (eds) 3D virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures, 1–3 March 2017. ISPRS, Nafplio, pp 209–215

Dirimtekin F (1957) İnceğiz Mıntıkasındaki Mağara—Manastır ve Kiliseleri, Türk Arkeoloji Dergisi, VII-2, pp 26–31. http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/sempozyum_pdf/turk_arkeoloji/07_2.turk.arkeoloji.pdf . Accessed 26 Jan 2020

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Tende, Andongma Wanduku; Mustapha, Tajuddeen; Fru, Mary Immaculate Neh; Gajere, Jiriko Nzeghi; Aminu, Mohammed Dahiru Hybrid extraction of tectonic lineaments from digital elevation model. Applied Geomatics (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-022-00422-6

Lorek D (2009) Kartograficzny obraz stanu przedindustrialnego na przykładzie wybranych miast Wielkopolski, Problemy Ekologii Krajobrazu. Problemy środowiska przyrodniczego miast. Polska Asocjacja Ekologii Krajobrazu. Bogucki Wydawnictwa Naukowe, Poznań

Khalil, Ahmed; Stravoravdis, Spyridon; Backes, Dietmar Categorisation of building data in the digital documentation of heritage buildings. Applied Geomatics (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-020-00322-7

Azhar S, Brown J (2009) Bim for sustainability analyses. Int J Constr Educ Res 5(4):276–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/15578770903355657

Smaczyński, Maciej; Lorek, Dariusz; Zagata, Krzysztof; Horbiński, Tymoteusz Cultural Heritage with the Use of Low-Level Aerial Survey Techniques, Space Modelling and Multimedia Reconstruction of the Topographic Landscape (Example of a Windmill in Western Poland). KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42489-022-00122-6

Carbonari G, Ashworth S, Stravoravdis S (2015) How facility management can use building information modelling (BIM) to improve the decision making process. Journal Fur Facility Management: Wissenschaft Trifft Praxis 10:56–67. https://doi.org/10.34749/jfm.2015.2120

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Grussenmeyer P, Guillemin S (2011) Photogrammetry and laser scanning in cultural heritage documentation: an overview of projects from INSA Strasbourg. In: GTC2011 Symposium “Geomatics in the City”, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, May 2011, 8 p

Keil, Julian; Edler, Dennis; Schmitt, Thomas; Dickmann, Frank Creating Immersive Virtual Environments Based on Open Geospatial Data and Game Engines. KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42489-020-00069-6

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Chai, Huixia; Zhou, Chenghu; Chen, Xi; Cheng, Weiming Digital regionalization of geomorphology in Xinjiang. Journal of Geographical Sciences (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-009-0600-4

Grosso E (2010) Integration of historical geographic data into current geo-referenced frameworks: a user-centered approach. Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Digital Approaches in Cartographic Heritage, Vienna, Austria, p. 22–24

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Kühne O, Jenal C (2020) Baton Rouge—the multivillage metropolis: a neopragmatic landscape biographical approach on spatial pastiches, hybridization, and differentiation. Springer VS, Wiesbaden

Père C, Faucher S (2007) Cluny : de la gestion de données à la réalité augmentée. Actes du colloque Virtual Retrospect, p 61–67

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Saadani, Said; Laajaj, Riham; Maanan, Mehdi; Rhinane, Hassan; Aaroud, Abdessadek Simulating spatial–temporal urban growth of a Moroccan metropolitan using CA–Markov model. Spatial Information Research (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41324-020-00322-0

Maleika W (2018) Kriging method optimization for the process of DTM creation based on huge data sets obtained from MBESS. Geosciences 8(12):UNSP 433

Westoby MJ, Brasington J, Glasser NF, Hambrey MJ, Reynolds JM (2012) ‘Structure-from-Motion’ photogrammetry: a low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications. Geomorphology 179:300–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.08.021

Weichhart P (1999) Die Räume zwischen den Welten und die Welt der Räume. In: Meusburger P (ed) Handlungszentrierte Sozialgeographie Benno Werlens Entwurf in kritischer Diskussion. Steiner, Stuttgart, p S. 67-94

McGarigal, K., & Marks, B. J. (1995). FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. General Technical Report - US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

Yao, Zhihang; Nagel, Claus; Kunde, Felix; Hudra, György; Willkomm, Philipp; Donaubauer, Andreas; Adolphi, Thomas; Kolbe, Thomas H. 3DCityDB - a 3D geodatabase solution for the management, analysis, and visualization of semantic 3D city models based on CityGML. Open Geospatial Data, Software and Standards (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40965-018-0046-7

Ragan ED, Sowndararajan A, Kopper R, Bowman DA (2010) The effects of higher levels of immersion on procedure memorization performance and implications for educational virtual environments. Presence Teleoper Virt Environ 19(6):527–543. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres_a_00016

Forczmanski Pawel, Maleika Wojciech (2015) Near-lossless PCA-based compression of seabed surface with prediction. Conference: 12th International Conference on Image Analysis and Recognition (ICIAR) Location: Niagara Falls, CANADA Date: JUL 22–24, 2015. IMAGE ANALYSIS AND RECOGNITION (ICIAR 2015). Book Series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9164, pp: 119–128, Published: 2015

Ubukawa T (2013b) An evaluation of the horizontal positional accuracy of Google and Bing Satellite Imagery and Three Roads Data Sets based on high resolution satellite imagery. Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), The Earth Institute at Columbia University.

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Smaczyński M, Horbiński T (2020) Creating 3D model of the existing historical topographic object based on low-level aerial imagery. KN J Cartogr Geogr Inform 71:33–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42489-020-00061-0

Schrotter, Gerhard; Hürzeler, Christian The Digital Twin of the City of Zurich for Urban Planning. PFG – Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-020-00092-2

Prashant K. Srivastava, Prem C. Pandey, George P. Petropoulos, Nektarios N. Kourgialas, Varsha Pandey and Ujjwal Singh, (2019) GIS and remote sensing aided information for soil moisture estimation: a comparative study of interpolation techniques. Resources 2019, 8(2), 70

Baba S, Islam MR, El-Nafaty JM (1991) Exploration and evaluation of economic minerals and rock in the northern part of the Mandara hills, Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geology 27:2.

Chin-shung Y, Szu-pyng K, Fen-bin L, Pen-shan H (2004) Twelve different interpolation methods: a case study of Surfer 8.0. Proceedings of the XXth ISPRS Congress

Maleika W (2015) Moving average optimization in digital terrain model generation based on test multibeam echosounder data. Geo Mar Lett 35(1):61–68

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McCaffrey M (2017) Unreal engine VR cookbook: developing virtual reality with UE4 (game design), 1st edn. Addison-Wesley, Boston

Hruby F, Sánchez LFÁ, Ressl R, Escobar-Briones EG (2020b) An empirical study on spatial presence in immersive geo-environments. PFG J Photogramm Remote Sens Geoinf Sci 88(2):155–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-020-00107-y

Wästfelt A (2020) Ambiguous use of geographical information systems for the rectifcation of large scale geometric maps. Cartogr J 57(3):209–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/00087041.2019.1660511

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Analysis of the location of events in time and space and their (co)evolutions have been major interests of science. No event escapes time and space and their relative gridded locations have been an area of increased interest. Before the Industrial Revolution and the development of sophisticated instruments, the events which occupied relatively large locations both in time and space were more possible to be analysed and understood.

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Liu, X., & Jiang, B. (2012). Defining and generating axial lines from street center lines for better understanding of urban morphologies. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 26(8), 1521–1532.

Aydar SA, Yomralıoğlu T, Özbek ED (2016) Modeling Turkey National 2D Geo-Data model as a CityGML application domain extension in UML. Int J Environ Geoinfo 3(3):1–10. https://doi.org/10.30897/ijegeo.306475

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Maleika, Wojciech Inverse distance weighting method optimization in the process of digital terrain model creation based on data collected from a multibeam echosounder. Applied Geomatics (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-020-00307-6

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Omontese SO, Utuedor E, Asadu AN (2015) Geological setting and petrology of the basement complex rocks of Wadili area, north-eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Science Inventions Today 4(3):275–285.

Ferworn A, Herman S, Tran J, Ufkes A, Mcdonald R (2013) Disaster scene reconstruction: modeling and simulating urban building collapse rubble within a game engine. In: SCSC ’13, proceedings of the 2013 summer computer simulation conference. Society for Modeling & Simulation International

Historic England 2006. Understanding historic buildings: a guide to good recording practice. Historic England. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000003223 . Accessed March 2020

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Bürgi M, Bieling C, von Hackwitz K, Kizos T, Lieskovský J, García Martín M, Printsmann A (2017) Processes and driving forces in changing cultural landscapes across Europe. Landscape Ecol 32:2097–2112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-017-0513-z

Kivelä M, Arenas A, Barthelemy M, et al. (2014) Multilayer networks. Journal of Complex Networks 2(3). Oxford University Press: 203–271. https://doi.org/10.1093/comnet/cnu016 .

Historic England 2017a. BIM for heritage developing a historic building information model. Swindon. https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/technical-advice/recording-heritage/ . Accessed March 2020

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Vetter M (2019) 3D-Visualisierung von landschaft—ein ausblick auf zukünftige entwicklungen. In: Landschaft Handbuch (ed) Kühne O, Weber F, Berr K, Jenal C. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden, pp 559–573

Maleika W, Koziarski M, Forczmanski P A Multiresolution Grid Structure Applied to Seafloor Shape Modeling. ISPRS Int J Geo Inf 7(3):UNSP 119 Published: MAR 2018

Khalil, Ahmed, and Spyridon Stravoravdis. 2019b. “The role of heritage-BIM in the process of energy retrofitting of heritage buildings - a literature review.” In The International Conference on Energy and Sustainable Futures (ICESF), edited by Amin Al-Habaibeh, Asthana Asthana, and Vladimir Vukovic, 308–14. Nottingham: Nottingham Trent University: Publications

Acierno M, Cursi S, Simeone D, Fiorani D (2017) Architectural heritage knowledge modelling: an ontology-based framework for conservation process. J Cult Herit 24:124–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.09.010

Golding JF (2006) Motion sickness susceptibility. Auton Neurosci Basic Clin 129(1–2):67–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autneu.2006.07.019

Aydar SA, Stoter J, Ledoux H, Ozbek ED, Yomralioglu T (2016) Establishing a national 3D geo-data model for building data compliant to citygml: case of Turkey. Int Archives Photogram Remote Sensing Spatial Info Sci ISPRS Archives 41(June):79–86. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XLI-B2-79-2016

Habibi S (2017) The promise of BIM for improving building performance. Energy Buildings 153:525–548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.08.009

Ding Y, Zhang Y (2007) The simulation of urban growth aapplying SLEUTH CA model to the Yilan Delta in Taiwan. Jurnal Alam Bina 2007(9):95–107

Shaban, A. (2024). History, Space, and Digital Modelling. In: Shaban, A. (eds) Digital Geographies—Urbanisation, Economy, and Modelling. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-9278-8_2

Ma Y, Wright J, Gopal S, Phillips N (2020) Seeing the invisible: from imagined to virtual urban landscapes. Cities 98:102559. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CITIES.2019.102559

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Kühne O (2018a) Die Landschaften 1, 2 und 3 und ihr Wandel: Perspektiven für die Landschaftsforschung in der Geographie—50 Jahre nach Kiel. Berichte Geographie Landeskunde 92(3–4):217–231

Ekwueme BN (1987) Structural orientations and precambrian deformational episodes of Uwet area Oban Massif, SE Nigeria. Precambrian Research 34:269–289.

Specht C, Dąbrowski P, Dumalski A, Hejbudzka K (2016) Modeling 3D objects for navigation purposes using laser scanning. TransNav 10(2):301–306. https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.10.02.12

Ma Y, Wright J, Gopal S, Phillips N (2020) Seeing the invisible: from imagined to virtual urban landscapes. Cities 98:102559. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CITIES.2019.102559

Hwang JT, Chu TC (2016) 3D building reconstruction by multiview images and the integrated application with augmented reality. ISPRS.

Silva EA, Clarke KC (2002) Calibration of the SLEUTH urban growth model for Lisbon and Porto, Portugal. Comput Environ Urban Syst 26:525–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0198-9715(01)00014-X (Accessed on 8/6/2020)

Rüther H, Chazan M, Schroeder R, Neeser R, Held C, Walker SJ, Matmon A, Horwitz LK (2009) Laser scanning for conservation and research of African cultural heritage sites: the case study of Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa. J Archaeol Sci 36(9):1847–1856

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Deggim S, Kersten T, Tschirschwitz F, Hinrichsen N (2017b) Segeberg 1600—reconstructing a historic town for virtual reality visualisation as an immersive experience. Int Arch Photogramm 42(2):87–94

Theodossopoulos, D, and B Sinha. 2008. “Structural safety and failure modes in gothic vaulting systems.” … Int. Seminar on Structural …, 2–9. http://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/8768078/Structural_Safety_and_failure_modes_in_Gothic_vaulting_systems.pdf

Azhar S, Carlton WA, Olsen D, Ahmad I (2011) Building information modeling for sustainable design and LEED®rating analysis. Autom Constr 20(2):217–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2010.09.019

Random House Unabridged Dictionary (2018) Virtual reality. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/virtual-reality . Accessed 7 Nov 2018

Ma, Q., Wu, J., He, C., & Hu, G. (2018). Landscape and urban planning spatial scaling of urban impervious surfaces across evolving landscapes: From cities to urban regions. Landscape and Urban Planning, 175(January), 50–61.

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Salekin S, Burgess JH, Morgenroth J, Mason EG, Meason DF (2018) A comparative study of three non-geostatistical methods for optimising digital elevation model interpolation. ISPRS Int J Geo Inf 7(8):300

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Slater M (2018) Immersion and the illusion of presence in virtual reality. Br J Psychol (Lond Engl 1953) 109(3):431–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12305

Kühne O (2022a) Play between the modes, the categories and the media of landscape—on the model train journey from Wanne-Eickel Hbf to Wattenscheid Hbf. In: Edler D, Kühne O, Jenal C (eds) The social construction of landscape in games. Springer, Wiesbaden

Teramoto Y, Sato A, Maruyama K, & Tomita H (2012) Map representation for ubiquitous network robot services. Proceedings of the 4th ACM SIGSPATIAL International Workshop on Indoor Spatial Awareness, ISA 2012 29–32 https://doi.org/10.1145/2442616.2442623

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Das S, Pardeshi SD (2017) Comparative analysis of lineaments extracted from Cartosat, SRTM and ASTER DEM: a study based on four watersheds in Konkan region, India. Spatial Information Research 26(1):47–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41324-017-0155-x

Tschirschwitz, Felix; Richerzhagen, Christian; Przybilla, Heinz-Jürgen; Kersten, Thomas P. Duisburg 1566: Transferring a Historic 3D City Model from Google Earth into a Virtual Reality Application. PFG – Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41064-019-00065-0

Maleika W, Palczynski M, Frejlichowski D (2012) Interpolation methods and the accuracy of bathymetric seabed models based on multibeam echosounder data. Intelligent Information and Database Systems (ACIIDS 2012), PT III book series: lecture notes in artificial intelligence,: 7198 pp 466–475

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