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Puntis, S., Perfect, D., Kirubarajan, A., Bolton, S., Davies, F., Hayes, A., ... & Molodynski, A. (2018). A systematic review of co-responder models of police mental health ‘street’ triage. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 1-11. Retrieved July 2021 from https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-018-1836-2

Hassell, K. D. (2020). The impact of crisis intervention team training for police. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 22(2), 159-170. Retrieved July 2021 from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461355720909404

Similar to ICAT, a different de-escalation training specific to LE interactions with trauma-exposed youth appeared to increase officers’ confidence in their abilities to handle these situations, per a 2021 study.

If communication tactics fail or are not appropriate for the situation, an officer may need to employ operational techniques. Operational techniques include skills such as using distance and cover to create time, tactical positioning/repositioning, and potentially calling additional resources to the scene.

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University of Memphis. (ND). “Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) National Curriculum.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from http://www.cit.memphis.edu/curriculuma.php?id=0

Engel, R. S., Corsaro, N., Isaza, G. T., & McManus, H. D. (2020). Examining the impact of Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT) de-escalation training for the Louisville Metro Police Department: Initial findings. Washington, DC: IACP & UC Center for Police Research and Policy. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/Research%20Center/LMPD_ICAT%20Evaluation%20Initial%20Findings%20Report_FINAL%2009212020.pdf

In this post, we are going to describe these different de-escalation techniques, provide you with resources to learn more, and describe how active threat assessment can help your personnel de-escalate situations.

One increasingly popular de-escalation training is ICAT (Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics), developed by the Police Executive Research Forum. The 40-hour program includes a range of modules that incorporate scenario-based learning and video case studies related to critical decision-making, crisis recognition, communications skills, and operational tactics.

Niagara University First Responders Disability Awareness Training (FRDAT). (ND). “Mental Health and De-escalation Training for Law Enforcement Professionals.” Retrieved July 27 from https://nu.protraining.com/

The drones U.S. police are using are much more like the consumer-grade type you might find at a big box store, than multi-million dollar, higher-tech military drones. Generally, police drones don’t carry weapons and are used primarily for video surveillance. It is possible for small drones to deliver chemical irritants like tear gas, however, a technology that police in Israel have used against Palestinians.

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Verbal and non-verbal communication can be helpful for de-escalating certain situations.  Verbal techniques cover things like interpersonal effectiveness, conflict resolution, and empathic listening skills. Non-verbal techniques emphasize things like giving undivided attention or being mindful of tone of voice. Many of these concepts are also covered in procedural justice and social interaction trainings, and have been found to improve citizen and officer satisfaction during LE-citizen encounters.

Bennell, C., Blaskovits, B., Jenkins, B., Semple, T., Khanizadeh, A. J., Brown, A. S., & Jones, N. J. (2020). Promising practices for de-escalation and use-of-force training in the police setting: a narrative review. Policing: An International Journal. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2020-0092/full/html?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=rss_journalLatest

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Engel, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Herold, T. D. (2020). Does de‐escalation training work? A systematic review and call for evidence in police use‐of‐force reform. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(3), 721-759. Retrieved July 2021 from https://prohic.nl/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2020-08-20-PoliceDeescalationPoliceForceMeta.August2020.pdf

Civil liberty advocates are less enchanted. In a report published on Thursday, American Civil Liberties Union Senior Policy Analyst Jay Stanley worries that these kinds of drone programs may normalize usage and “usher in an era of pervasive, suspicionless, mass aerial surveillance.” He notes far more invasive turns that police drone usage could take, including warrantless surveillance of specific people, crime “hotspots” or even whole neighborhoods or cities. Stanley wonders if drone usage won’t just become “another weapon in the war on drugs, in over-policing, in the targeting of Black, low-income and other vulnerable communities, and otherwise amplify the problems with the deeply broken U.S. criminal legal system.”

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Rogers, M. S., McNiel, D. E., & Binder, R. L. (2019). Effectiveness of police crisis intervention training programs. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 47(4), 414-421. Retrieved July 2021 from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31551327/

Communication is especially key when it comes to engaging with persons with mental illness (PMI) or those in crisis. Most PMI are not dangerous, but a special set of skills can help communicate effectively with this population. Skills focus on recognizing the signs and symptoms of mental illnesses and/or substance abuse and how to communicate effectively in these situations.

Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) International. (ND). “CIT Best Practice Guide.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from https://www.citinternational.org/bestpracticeguide/

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Goh, L. S. (2021). Did de‐escalation successfully reduce serious use of force in Camden County, New Jersey? A synthetic control analysis of force outcomes. Criminology & Public Policy, 20(2), 207-241. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1745-9133.12536

Sometimes, an officer will still need to apply force. However, they can still opt for a less-lethal use of force, particularly if the subject does not appear to have a firearm. Should a use of force eventually occur, operational techniques can also help an officer resolve the situation without resorting to lethal force.

According to data from the Chula Vista Police Department, it has sent drones to more than 16,000 calls in total, with an average response time of under two minutes. For reference, average response times using officers exceeded 20 minutes in 14 of 15 other departments included in a review by data analyst Jeff Asher earlier this year.

Crisis intervention andde escalation training

Promising practices for police de-escalation and use-of-force training are highlighted in a 2020 research review. Communication skills and operational skills are the two major types of de-escalation techniques.

De-escalation trainings are increasingly popular in law enforcement, though the actual tactics used can vary. De-escalation techniques focus on slowing down potentially volatile situations and reducing the immediacy of threat during these encounters. The goal of de-escalation is to resolve the situation without using force or with a reduction in the severity of force used.

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“If they’d rushed into that with limited information about the call and he spun around because he’s scared of the cops and points the lighter at their general direction, we can see how easily that could become a tragedy,” a department official told the San Diego Union Tribune in 2020. Supporters also note that faster drone response times can aid investigations, and see the technology as a “force multiplier” that can help police address staffing shortages, and respond to potentially dangerous scenes without putting a human officer in danger.

Sometimes an officer will need to use force, though the force does not need to be lethal. Assessing active threats through behavioral change helps an officer dynamically gauge a potential threat, and might be the reason an officer chooses to use a lower level of force as opposed to lethal force.

The department denied his request, arguing that the video is “investigative” in nature and not subject to public records laws. The department does make drone flight path data public, along with the reason for the 911 calls that initiated the investigation. Over the past week, flights have been launched for reported robberies, domestic disturbances and assault, but also public indecency, welfare checks and “suspicious circumstances.”

During an LE-citizen encounter, threat assessment helps objectively assess demeanor and differentiate behavior-based threats from personality quirks or symptoms of mental illness. An officer also may be able to better recognize when to call for back-up and/or a mental health response team. Assessment of behavior-based threats will also help an officer decide when to use de-escalation techniques and whether doing so might put his or others’ safety in jeopardy.

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Want to help your officers become more proficient at identifying behavior-based threats? Check out our active threat course offerings today! We have a free online course for you to learn more about active threat assessment now.

Many of the cities using drones in policing are doing so from so-called “real-time crime centers,” which are growing in popularity as well. These units function as centralized hubs to connect the various bits of surveillance and data that police collect from things like stationary cameras, drones, license plate readers and technology that listens for possible gunshots. Some centers can even integrate police body cameras and video from Ring doorbells at the homes of people who sign up.

National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). (ND). “Crisis Intervention Team Programs.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from https://www.nami.org/Advocacy/Crisis-Intervention/Crisis-Intervention-Team-(CIT)-Programs

Coleman, T., & Cotton, D. (2014). TEMPO: A contemporary model for police education and training about mental illness. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry, 37(4), 325-333. Retrieved July 2021 from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24720915/

An officer may work alongside specially trained civilian personnel to respond to crises in the form of a mental health response team, or they may rely on a mobile crisis unit, which is a specially-trained entity separate from the police. Research reviews from 2018 and 2020 explain how frameworks of co-responder programs vary greatly, making it difficult to know which framework is the most effective. Nonetheless, the research has shown that co-responder programs can reduce the amount of police time spent on mental health calls, increase access to services for PMI, and decrease repeat calls, benefiting the police and the community.

Isaza, G. T., McManus, H. D., Engel, R. S., & Corsaro, N. (2019). Assessing the impact of Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT) training program for the University of Cincinnati, OH Police Division (UCPD). Washington, DC: IACP & UC Center for Police Research and Policy. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/Research%20Center/UCPD_ICAT%20Evaluation_Final.pdf

Mehari, K. R., Rodgers, C. R., Blanton, M. A., & Turner, L. A. (2021). Evaluation of a police training on de-escalation with trauma-exposed youth. International Journal of Law, Crime & Justice, 66(2021), 100491. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1756061621000367

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Jamiles Lartey Twitter Email is a New Orleans-based staff writer for The Marshall Project. Previously, he worked as a reporter for the Guardian covering issues of criminal justice, race and policing. Jamiles was a member of the team behind the award-winning online database “The Counted,” tracking police violence in 2015 and 2016. In 2016, he was named “Michael J. Feeney Emerging Journalist of the Year” by the National Association of Black Journalists.

De-escalating a volatile situation requires constant awareness, observation, and assessment of one’s surroundings. Active threat assessment helps an officer gauge both the immediacy and severity of a potential threat even when the threat changes throughout the encounter. The awareness of threat indicators helps an officer more objectively (rather than subjectively) identify the immediacy of a threat.

Another approach is disability awareness training, such as FRDAT (First Responder Disability Awareness Training) based in New York. FRDAT offers resources on how to recognize and communicate with PMI and people with various disabilities. FRDAT’s resources and trainings have been used in various agencies throughout several states and Canada. Anecdotal evidence suggests that it helps to decrease use of force, increase officer awareness of mental health symptoms, and increase their efficiency and confidence in handling mental health calls. However, it has yet to be rigorously evaluated.

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Elizabeth Berger is a published author and research methodologist specializing in policing. Prior to joining the Sacramento-based Criminal Justice Legal Foundation in April 2021, she resided in the D.C. area and worked as a researcher, freelance writer, and translational scientist, both independently and in partnerships with other organizations including the American Society of Evidence-Based Policing. In addition, Ms. Berger was a Research Associate at the Police Executive Research Forum, where she designed and led applied research projects with several law enforcement agencies. She holds M.S. and B.S. degrees in Criminal Justice with concentrations in Statistics from Niagara University in Lewiston, NY.

The officer’s goal when using operational techniques is to not only protect himself but also create additional attempts to de-escalate. For example, in a rapidly evolving scenario involving a person with a knife, an officer can use an operational skill such as tactical positioning to create distance between himself and the subject, which may allow for another verbal de-escalation attempt.

Perhaps the most well-known police drone program in the country is run by the Chula Vista department in Southern California, which began its “drone as first responder” efforts in 2018. When 911 calls come in, the department routinely sends a drone first to assess what kind of human police response is necessary, if any. Most police drones are not used as first responders, it’s worth mentioning, but the approach is growing in popularity. In addition, the federal regulatory hurdles that limit such programs are likely to loosen in the near future.

Police Executive Research Forum (PERF). (ND). “About ICAT.” Retrieved July 27 2021 from https://www.policeforum.org/about-icat

Police Executive Research Forum (PERF). (2016). Integrating Communications, Assessment, and Tactics (ICAT): A training guide for defusing critical incidents. Washington, DC: PERF. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.policeforum.org/assets/icattrainingguide.pdf

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Antrobus, E., Thompson, I., & Ariel, B. (2019). Procedural justice training for police recruits: results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15(1), 29-53. Retrieved July 2021 from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-018-9331-9

While drones don’t have the same capabilities as officers, the Chula Vista department and drone manufacturers say that their use can function as a de-escalation tactic. In one frequently cited example, 911 received a call about a man waving around a gun in front of a taco restaurant. A Chula Vista police drone arrived in 84 seconds, and before officers could make it onto the scene, the operator used the drone video to determine that the “gun” was actually a cigarette lighter.

Just what kind of transparency the public has into the kind of data these police efforts collect is still playing out. This week, a California appeals court agreed to hear a case brought by a journalist who filed a public records request for footage from the Chula Vista drone program. Art Castañares, publisher of La Prensa San Diego, asked for a month of video to “independently verify police officials’ assurances that they do not use the drones to spy on residents.”

Wolfe, S., Rojek, J., McLean, K., & Alpert, G. (2020). Social interaction training to reduce police use of force. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political & Social Science, 687(1), 124-145. Retrieved July 2021 from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0002716219887366

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Integration of threat assessment training will help your officers assess the immediacy of a threat during even the most dangerous LE-citizen encounters. Being able to differentiate between when to de-escalate and when to use force will encourage your officers to apply de-escalation techniques when able, but not at the risk of their own or others’ safety.

International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), & University of Cincinnati (UC) Center for Police Research Policy. (2017). Assessing the impact of co-responder team programs: A review of research. Washington, DC: IACP. Retrieved July 2021 from https://www.theiacp.org/sites/default/files/IDD/Review%20of%20Co-Responder%20Team%20Evaluations.pdf

Just this week, police departments in Salem, New Hampshire; Gresham, Oregon; and Luverne, Alabama announced the purchase of drones. More than 1,500 departments across the country now use them, “mostly for search and rescue as well as to document crime scenes and chase suspects,” according to a February report in the MIT Technology Review. Some agencies, like the New York Police Department, are experimenting with other uses, like public safety warnings during emergencies. It’s a new space where regulations and safeguards appear to be lagging behind adoption.

ICAT was evaluated in Louisville, Kentucky and Camden, New Jersey, and both studies showed promising results. The Louisville study showed significant reductions in use of force, citizen injuries, and officer injuries, while the Camden study found reductions in serious force events. The ICAT training also seems to increase officer confidence in handling volatile LE-citizen encounters, particularly with PMI. ICAT has been implemented in many agencies throughout the United States, and empirical results are promising so far.

Critical decision-making skills cover things like knowing whether it is safe to ‘tactically pause’ and engage verbally with a suspect. During the tactical pause, communications and crisis recognition skills (which are oten similar to those emphasized in CIT) can be used to de-escalate emotional responses. Operational tactics can create additional chances for de-escalation that might not otherwise be possible.