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Then we calculated a carbon intensity figure - the carbon emissions per unit of energy generated - for every site, by dividing the total fossil emissions by the energy generated.

From erecting seawalls to selling citizenship, vulnerable small islands are taking sometimes drastic measures to protect themselves from rising seas, storms and economic devastation.

The challenge is that even if local authorities wanted to move away from the use of energy-from-waste plants they are often unable to due to restrictive, long-term contracts.

This is certainly the case for food waste, which produces less harmful greenhouse gases when burned, but it is not the case for plastic waste. Plastic is made of fossil fuels and burning it, rather than burying it in landfill, produces high levels of greenhouse gases.

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The BBC also found that dozens of councils had clauses in their contracts which demand a minimum amount of waste to be sent to incinerators for burning - known in the industry as “deliver or pay”.

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This now leaves waste incineration as the dirtiest way the UK produces power. According to the BBC analysis, energy produced from waste is five times more polluting than the average UK unit of electricity.

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The BBC made Freedom of Information requests to every UK local authority responsible for disposing of waste, which revealed that they have at least £30bn-worth of contracts with waste operators involving incinerators, some lasting more than 20 years.

The Brooklyn Center police manual says officers need to be trained at least annually, and the training should include "performing reaction-hand draws or cross-draws to reduce the possibility of accidentally drawing and firing a firearm," according to Reuters news agency.

Burning household rubbish in giant incinerators to make electricity is now the dirtiest way the UK generates power, BBC analysis has found.

The government’s independent advisory group, the UK Climate Change Committee, warns that incineration will make up an increasing part of emissions from electricity generation.

There are currently only four out of 58 incinerators in the UK with approved plans to capture their emissions and one pilot project that is operating. This project at Ferrybridge EfW collects one tonne of carbon dioxide a day - but the site produces more than half a million tonnes of CO2 annually.

A Defra spokesperson told the BBC: “We are committed to cutting waste and moving to a circular economy so that we re-use, reduce and recycle more resources and help meet our emissions targets.”

According to the government’s own statistics, burning plastic produces 175 times more carbon dioxide (CO2) than burying it in landfill.

Joe Harris, vice chair of the LGA and leader of Cotswold District Council, said: “If we can adapt those contracts which allows us to reduce the amount of waste going to incineration and if we can boost recycling we want to do that, but we can’t have councils facing financial penalties.”

Lord Deben, the Conservative environment minister who introduced the landfill tax in 1996, told the BBC: “We’ve got too many [incinerators], and we shouldn’t have any more… they begin to distort our ability to recycle.”

Methodological support was provided by Francesco Pomponi, professor of sustainability science at Edinburgh Napier University; Massimiliano Materazzi, associate professor of chemical engineering at University College London; and Dr Jim Hart, sustainability consultant.

In April, a temporary ban on permits for new incinerators was introduced in England by the previous Conservative government, while it reviewed the role of burning waste, but when the ban lapsed in May it was not continued.

In order to calculate the emissions produced per unit of energy from England’s incinerators, the BBC needed to obtain the emissions produced and the power output from these sites.

But the Environmental Services Association, the waste industry body, said burning rubbish for energy has been “complementary to efforts to recycle more” over the past decade and that “stagnant recycling rates are only indicative of a failure to develop recycling policies”.

This gave the BBC the total fossil emissions - meaning those associated with burning the “fossil” waste (or non-organic waste) at the site, including plastic.

As the UK grapples with the after-effects of Storm Bert, Jonah Fisher explains how climate change is driving more extreme weather patterns.

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These arrangements have been criticised by the House of Commons public accounts committee for locking councils into financially burdensome arrangements.

Police officers are typically trained to keep guns in a holster on their dominant side to avoid confusing it with their Taser, which is kept on the belt on the other side of the body.

In a letter last month, senior civil servants at the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero said they were unable to decide whether to approve a proposed incinerator in North Lincolnshire until the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) had decided the government’s policy on burning waste for power.

But the Local Government Association (LGA) - representing local authorities in England and Wales - expressed concerns to the BBC that these contracts have left councils unable to explore the use of more environmental solutions, such as recycling, for fear of a fine for breach of contract.

Prof Keith Bell, who sits on the UK Climate Change Committee, said after reviewing the BBC's findings: “If the current government is serious about clean power by 2030 then... we cannot allow ourselves to be locked into just burning waste.”

Facing massive bills, councils turned to energy-from-waste plants - a type of incinerator that produces electricity from burning rubbish. The number of incinerators surged - in the past five years the number in England alone has risen from 38 to 52. About 3.1% of the UK’s energy comes from waste incinerators.

It’s an “insane situation”, said Dr Ian Williams, professor of applied environmental science at the University of Southampton.

The killing of Daunte Wright, a young black man, in a suburb of Minneapolis in the US, was because an officer mistook her gun for a Taser, according to police.

Although the plant had never been used, the councils were were ordered to pay £93.5m in compensation to RRS’s administrators for terminating the contract early.

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Nearly 15 years ago, the government became seriously concerned with the gases being produced from throwing away household rubbish in landfill and their contribution to climate change. In response, it hiked the taxes UK councils paid for burying waste.

The IPCC, the UN climate science body, recommends that “biogenic” emissions - which come from burning organic matter like food - are not included in calculations because they are recorded under the emissions for the land and forestry sector.

The BBC examined five years of data from across the country, and found that burning waste produces the same amount of greenhouse gases for each unit of energy as coal power, which was abandoned by the UK last month.

“The current practice of the burning of waste for energy and building more and more incinerators for this purpose is at odds with our desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,” he said.

Considering the Dorset incinerator was approved by the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, this letter raises questions about the consistency of the government’s approach on this issue.

Some operators recorded this, but in the cases where they did not the government guidelines advise applying a factor based on the share of household waste that was recorded as biogenic during a 2017 survey by the environmental NGO WRAP.

The video of the incident that was circulated by police shows the officer shouting out "Taser, Taser, Taser" before shooting, and then appearing to realise she had used a handgun instead.

In 2019, Derbyshire County Council and Derby City Council terminated their contract with waste company RRS because an incinerator it had built for them did not pass initial tests, with residents complaining about the smell and noise.

In the past few years, more plastic has been going to incinerators and less food waste - which councils are now sending to anaerobic digesters or to be composted. But the government’s own calculations continue to assume that we send the same mix of rubbish as we did back in 2017 - potentially underestimating the scale of the issue.

"So if you're right-handed you carry your firearm on your right side and [you] carry your Taser on your left," Brooklyn Center Police Chief Tim Gannon told reporters after the shooting of Mr Wright.

Incineration

So we had to remove these biogenic emissions from the total by working out what share of the waste being burned was organic.

Without action, it is expected that the use of incinerators in the UK will continue to grow and they will probably get more polluting.

And yet, incinerators are still being built in England. The UK government approved a new £150m site in Dorset last month, overturning the local council’s decision to block it.

In 2010, Stoke-on-Trent Council was left facing a £329,000 claim from Hanford Waste Services for not sending enough waste to be incinerated.

It had "implemented numerous features and training recommendations to reduce the possibility of these incidents occurring" - including making them look and feel different from a firearm.

Nearly half of the rubbish produced in UK homes, including increasing amounts of plastic, is now being incinerated. Scientists warn it is a “disaster for the climate” - and some are calling for a ban on new incinerators.

The council declined to say if it paid the claim but told us the clause has since been removed from its contracts with the operator.

The BBC’s five-year analysis used data on actual pollution levels recorded by operators at their incinerators, and found that energy-from-waste plants are now producing the same amount of greenhouse gases per unit of electricity as if they were burning coal.

Dorset Council leader Nick Ireland told the BBC at the time that it "kneecaps" the county’s efforts to achieve their "net zero" target - the goal of no longer adding to carbon emissions by 2050.

In the past few years, Wales and Scotland have introduced bans on new incinerator plants over environmental concerns, and there have been increasing calls from leading academics and environmental groups for the same to happen in England and Northern Ireland.

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The US-based Axon company, which developed the Taser used by the Brooklyn Center police department involved in this incident, was quoted as saying their weapons were designed to be distinguishable from handguns.

However, a law journal published in 2012 found nine examples of police officers accidentally using a handgun instead of a Taser between 2001 and 2009. Two of these incidents resulted in death.

The Brooklyn Center police manual says that officers must position Tasers "in a reaction-side holster on the side opposite the duty weapon".

Each incinerator in the UK produces annual monitoring reports, which record key statistics associated with the plant including its total emissions.

The Environmental Services Association, which represents waste firms, contested our findings and said emissions from dealing with waste are “challenging to avoid”.

For the past 10 years recycling rates have failed to increase, remaining stuck at about 41% in England - despite a previous commitment by the previous Conservative government for 65% of the UK’s household waste to be recycled by 2035. Wales is the only nation to have hit the 65% target.

The officer has been named as Kim Potter, who had worked for Brooklyn Center Police for 26 years. She has resigned, and been charged with second-degree manslaughter.

Dr Colin Church, who led an independent review of incineration for the Scottish government which resulted in the ban, said: “‘Lock-in’ is a real issue, the energy-from-waste sector swears blind it’s not, but it is.”

The waste they are burning is increasingly made up of plastic, according to local government data. Because plastic is produced from fossil fuels, it is the dirtiest type of waste to burn.

These include the UK Climate Change Committee, which has recommended that no more plants be built without efforts to capture all their carbon emissions.

For the past three decades, the UK has been reducing its use of coal because of how polluting it is - and last month closed its last coal plant. The government hopes this will help it achieve its target of ensuring electricity generation produces no carbon emissions by 2030.

Incineration waste examples

Tasers fire small dart-like electrodes that can deliver a high-voltage shock to disable temporarily a suspect and allow officers to deal with violent, or potentially violent, people at a distance.

But all three were cleared of the most serious counts that could have resulted in life in prison for the death of Tyre Nichols.

There are currently dozens of new plants going through the planning process, and existing ones are growing in capacity. The BBC investigation found nearly half of all incinerators in the UK have managed to get a capacity increase approved by the Environment Agency without applying for a new permit - which requires public consultation.

But in a few cases the emissions were not recorded in the annual monitoring report and so the figures recorded in the government’s pollution inventory report were used.

Other experts point out that even if a Taser and a gun are holstered on different sides of the body, if they are both worn in a such a way that they can be easily accessed by the dominant hand, that could lead to mistakes when under pressure.

In response to a request for comment, a Defra spokesperson said: “We are considering the role waste incineration will play as we decarbonise and grow the economy.”

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