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The distinction between types of CMOS sensors typically arises from the quantity of transistors per pixel, which affects the fill factor. The fill factor refers to the portion of the pixel sensor that is sensitive to light.

May 2022—Users of the CAP’s redesigned laboratory inspector training course, introduced last December, should find it to be more fun, less chore, and tailored to what they need to know, say those who developed the new course. And it’s open and accessible to all.

Each pixel's current corresponds to red, green, or blue light, facilitated by the inclusion of filters within each pixel. The minute currents are then directed to an operational amplifier (op-amp) configured in a trans-impedance setup, transforming the current into a low-level analog voltage signal. Consequently, each pixel now possesses three distinct low-level analog voltage values, representing the intensity of red, green, and blue light.

The support circuitry accompanying a CMOS image sensor includes a reset/sample pin, matrix selection switches, an output gain amplifier, and an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). These elements facilitate the conversion of the analog voltage output from the pixels into a format usable by computing systems for image data processing.

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“In my experience in different university settings, I hadn’t had the opportunity to work with adaptive learning or this type of software before we unveiled it. My guess is it will be new for a lot of people,” says Ericka Olgaard, DO, MBA, chair of the CAP Accreditation Education Committee, whose members helped create the new course. Committee members did an analysis to find the gaps in training, she says. “In the spirit of continuous improvement, we are always looking to identify things we need to change, add, modify, subtract—to make it better, based on real-life experience in the lab. We think this course really is better.”

CMOS can also be found in astronomical telescopes, scanners and barcode readers. The optical technology is used in machine vision for robots, in optical character recognition (OCR), in the processing of satellite photographs and in the enhancement of RADAR images, especially for meteorology. The low-cost manufacturing of CMOS makes it achievable to generate low-cost consumer devices.

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The operation of global shutter operates by exposing all pixels simultaneously and then reading them out sequentially. A notable advantage of CMOS sensors lies in their lower power consumption and dissipation compared to equivalent CCD sensors, owing to reduced charge flow or current. Moreover, CMOS sensors exhibit resistance to blooming, allowing them to handle high light levels adeptly, making them suitable for specialized high dynamic range cameras capable of capturing intricate details such as welding seams or light filaments. Additionally, CMOS cameras typically feature smaller form factors compared to their digital CCD counterparts, as digital CCD cameras necessitate extra off-chip ADC circuitry.

CMOS sensorSamsung

All of this is packed into a standard integrated circuit package and placed on printed circuit boards (PCBs). The components are all inside this package, and external pins help control the sensor. Usually, CMOS image sensors work with a shutter lens and a computer to display and process the images they capture.

An image sensor is a device that converts optical images into electronic signals. The two main types of image sensors are the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS sensor). These sensors operate based on metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology, with CCDs using MOS capacitors and CMOS sensors employing MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor) amplifiers.

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A CMOS image sensor is an electronic chip that converts photons to electrons for digital processing. This is a semiconductor device that captures visual information in digital form. It was invented in 1963 by Frank Wanlass. This sensor is used to create images in digital cameras, digital video cameras, digital CCTV cameras, smartphones, and various imaging systems.

CMOS sensor

The prior training course was similar to “a day in the life of an inspector,” says Jeff McNeal, MEd, CAP director of education program design and co-developer. “It was a sequential, linear course that followed a storyline. Users had to take each page and module in sequence for that story to make sense. But with adaptive learning, you can test out of some sections, and that would have resulted in a disrupted story. So we removed the story element.” Now the course consists of concise, bite-sized content that can stand alone and does not depend on the section before it. “All of the necessary information in the original course remains,” he says.

Julie Donovan, MT(ASCP), CAP instructional designer and co-developer of the course, defines adaptive learning as “a customized learning experience” personalized to the needs of each trainee. Because the course is tailored to each learner’s needs and their own experience or inexperience, says Dr. Olgaard, clinical associate professor, Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, “it helps each learner identify deficits they have personally and helps them grow and learn more.”

On the other hand, global shutter is a technique for capturing images or video frames in which the entire frame is exposed to light simultaneously. This ensures that all pixels are captured at the same time, eliminating the distortion effects associated with rolling shutter, and is particularly useful for capturing fast-moving objects or scenes with rapid motion.

The training offers versions for inspection team members and inspection leaders. If the user were to go from start to end, without skipping any part of the course, the training time would be 4.5 hours for team members and five hours for team leaders.

This conversion process recurs for each pixel's analog voltage values until all pixels' analog signals are digitized. Ultimately, the CMOS image sensor outputs digital voltage values, reflecting the red, green, and blue light intensities captured by each pixel within the sensor's matrix. These digital voltage values are transmitted to an external computing system, commonly a processor, where they can be further manipulated or displayed as a digital image on a screen.

Utilizing a matrix of switches, each pixel is individually selected by specifying a row and column. The analog voltage values of the selected pixel are then routed to an output gain amplifier, which elevates the voltage levels to a usable range for the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The ADC subsequently converts these analog voltage values into digital equivalents.

The working of CMOS image sensor begins with an external signal activating the shutter lens and triggering the reset/sample pin on the image sensor. This action exposes the photodiodes within each pixel to incoming light. Subsequently, the photodiodes generate currents proportional to the intensity of light they receive from the environment.

However, the multilayer MOS fabrication process used in CMOS sensor production precludes the incorporation of microlenses on the chip. As a result, the effective collection efficiency or fill factor of CMOS sensors is lower in comparison to CCD equivalents. This reduced efficiency, coupled with pixel-to-pixel inconsistencies, contributes to a diminished signal-to-noise ratio and overall image quality when compared to CCD sensors.

Within a CMOS sensor, the charge originating from the photosensitive pixel undergoes conversion into a voltage directly at the pixel site. Subsequently, the signal is multiplexed by row and column, directing it towards multiple on-chip digital-to-analog converters (DACs).

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The team leader training has about 30 minutes of additional content, Donovan says, “related to assembling and managing the team, selecting the right people, setting up the inspection date with the lab to be inspected, understanding how to get travel booked, evaluating the lab director with a special checklist, completing a special summary report, and more.”

At the outset, the new course assesses a user’s existing knowledge through a series of targeted questions. “They are not particularly taxing questions,” Donovan says, “but also they are not just one and done. The questions assess an entire topic area, and if you get all of the questions correct, then the course will allow you to skip that section of training. In the end, it will prescribe a unique learning path for each user. So if you and I both took this course, we’d have completely different pathways to completion.”

The CMOS sensor contains four main parts: the color filters, the pixel array, the digital controller, and the analog to digital convertor.

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Unlike CCD (charge-coupled device) sensors, CMOS sensors integrate amplifiers and A/D converters at each pixel, thereby enabling faster readout speeds and lower power consumption. The CMOS sensor operates on the principle of the photoelectric effect to change photons into electrical energy. In contrast to CCD sensors, CMOS sensors directly convert electric charge into voltage within the pixels. Currently, CMOS sensors are available with outstanding image quality and high frame rates, making them suitable for use in high-performance industrial cameras.

The format of the course, known as adaptive learning, makes it possible for users to bypass what they know and zero in on what they don’t.

The content is divided into three main sections: before, during, and after an inspection. People training to be team members will receive operational information, as well as “theory of the inspection and directions on how to inspect,” Dr. Olgaard says. They will also receive salient points around the all common checklist and the laboratory general checklist. “The course gives objectives and directives on specifics—papers you need to fill out, what needs to be signed, what needs to be sent and where.” Discipline-specific sections give users guidance in determining compliance in each discipline they would inspect on their next inspection.

The configuration of a CMOS sensor often integrates a rolling shutter, although the inclusion of additional transistors at the pixel site enables the attainment of a global shutter. Rolling shutter is a technique for capturing images or video frames in which the sensor scans across the scene either vertically, horizontally, or rotationally, instead of capturing the entire scene at once. This can lead to distortion effects, such as skew or wobble, especially when there is movement in the scene during capture.

Pixels are the smallest unit in a digital display. It operates based on the photoelectric effect, with pixel sensors tasked with capturing the intensity of the light that passes through them. This intensity data is combined and then converted into an analog voltage signal, which is subsequently sent to an external circuit board for additional processing. A pixel is composed of three photodiodes accompanied by an operational amplifier. Each photodiode is equipped with a specific filter, permitting only one color of light to pass through. Within a pixel, these three photodiodes are selectively covered with red, green, or blue filters.

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Color Filter is a mosaic of small filters placed on the pixel sensors designed to capture color information. These color filters facilitate the individual measurement of red (R), green (G), and blue (B) photons. By filtering out unwanted wavelengths, the color filters allow only specific colors of light to reach a pixel sensor. To achieve this, each pixel is equipped with a red, green, and blue filter arranged in a specific pattern, such as the Bayer CFA pattern. The Bayer filter employs sub-mosaic 2x2 patterns containing one red, one blue, and two green filters. Given the human eye's heightened sensitivity to green light, two green filters are utilized in this arrangement.

A typical CMOS image sensor is an electronic device that converts light intensity into a digital signal. It is an integrated circuit featuring an array of pixel sensors and supporting circuitry. Each pixel has three photodiodes and an operational amplifier. The supporting circuitry consists of an reset/sample pin, matrix selection switches, an output gain amplifier, and an analog to digital converter (ADC).