-3GPP. 2017. Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network: Study on enhanced LTE Support for Aerial Vehicle“, document 3GPP TR 36.777 VIS.O.O. [online]. Available at: https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3231 [Accessed: 15 December 2020].

DO NOT PASS. This sign may be placed in areas where you may not pass any vehicles going in the same direction. It is often accompanied by the yellow pennant-shaped sign that says NO PASSING ZONE (Refer to "Warning Signs").

STOP SIGN AHEAD. A STOP sign is present at the intersection ahead. You may not be able to see it because of a curve, hill, or something else blocking your view. There also may be a line of vehicles stopped ahead at the STOP sign you cannot see. When you see this sign, slow down in preparation to stop.

FANET is unable to provide a scalable solution for serving massive UAVs deployed in a wide area. The platform realizes a reliable routing protocol over the mobile network with dynamic and intermittent link connectives among flying UAVs.

HORSE-DRAWN VEHICLE. This sign is posted in areas where slow-moving, horse-drawn vehicles cross or share the roadway with motorized vehicles.

Highway workers have forms to report motorists who speed or drive unsafely in work zones to the police, who may then issue a ticket, resulting in fines and points.

DIVIDED HIGHWAY ENDS. The divided highway on which you are traveling ends ahead. You will then be on a roadway with two-way traffic. Keep to the right of the centerline and watch for oncoming traffic.

RESERVED PARKING. Although this sign is not black and white, it is a regulatory sign. It marks areas where parking is reserved for disabled persons or severely disabled veterans. Vehicles parked in these spaces must display authorized registration plates or parking placards. Unauthorized vehicles parked in these spaces are subject to a fine and towing costs.

The DO NOT ENTER and WRONG WAY signs work as a team. The DO NOT ENTER sign is put at the beginning of one-way streets and ramps. When you see this sign, do not drive onto that street or ramp in the direction you are heading.

This sign is also used in conjunction with stop signs. This sign allows motorists to make the right turn without stopping.

-Wikimedia Commons. 2021b. File:Charles Robert Richet nobel.jpg [online]. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Robert_Richet_nobel.jpg [Accessed: 15 August 2021].

BICYCLE CROSSING AHEAD. Bicyclists may be crossing your path ahead. Be prepared to slow down, if necessary. This sign may have either a yellow background (as shown) or a fluorescent yellow-green background.

Work zone signs are normally diamond-shaped, like warning signs, but they are orange with black lettering instead of yellow with black lettering. These signs identify maintenance, construction, or utility areas where workers or equipment may be on or near the roadway. Stay alert and slow down when you see these signs.

-Wikimedia Commons. 2021a. File:Louis Charles Breguet.jpg [online]. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Charles_Breguet.jpg [Accessed: 15 August 2021].

In should be noted that the earliest military drones appeared in the mid-1850s. The conception dates back to 1849 during the war (see Table 1) between Austria and Venice. Unmanned balloons with explosives were used. The Austrian forces launched around 200 incendiary balloons with 11 kg to 14 kg bombs each. It is interesting to note that only one bomb found its mark, while most of the balloons were blown away due to a change in wind direction. From the point of view of military technology, the use of balloons does not meet the current definitions of drones.

There are still many open issues related to the performing UAV communications in 5G systems. For example, in certain use cases, there can exist some dissipations and barriers between UAVs and ground stations. In UAV-enabled multi-user non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) systems, the optimal user clustering and user-pairing algorithms are underexplored fields.

Goddemeier, N., Daniel, K. & Wietfeld, C. 2010. Coverage evaluation of wireless networks for unmanned aerial systems. In: 2010 IEEE Globecom Workshops Conference, Miami, FL, USA, pp.1760-1765, December 6-10. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/GLOCOMW.2010.5700244.

SLIPPERY WHEN WET. Especially slippery conditions exist when wet. In wet weather, reduce your speed and increase your following distance. Do not accelerate or brake quickly. Make turns at a very slow speed.

Ferranti, L., Cuomo, F., Colonnese, S. & Melodia, T. 2018. Drone Cellular Networks: Enhancing the Quality Of Experience of video streaming applications. Ad Hoc Networks, 78, pp.1-12. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2018.05.003.

The flexible deployment and strong line of sight links of UAVs are expected to make them an important component of future 5G and beyond wireless networks towards the provision of ubiquitous connectivity at any time. Business spectrum sharing among the UAVs and the fixed network infrastructure and the introduction of aerial networks imply additional challenges that need to be addressed. In particular, the energy supplied to UAVs has been identified as one major issue in aerial networks, since apart from the possibility of communication interruption, the possibility of physical damage is also looming. To deal with this problem, the idea of strategically deployed charging stations in urban and rural areas has been recently proposed in the literature. As UAVs gain ground in mobile communications and the number of UAV operations is expected to increase, limited places in charging stations should be allocated efficiently.

• One or two-digit, odd-numbered interstates are generally north-south routes. Numbers increase from the west coast I-5 to the east coast I-95. In Pennsylvania, I-79 is in the western part of the state, and I-95 is in the eastern part.

WRONG WAY signs are placed farther down the one-way street or ramp. They are placed there to catch your attention if you accidentally turn onto the street or ramp.

Energy-efficient UAV communications were focused only on reducing communication-related energy consumption of either the ground nodes (Zhan et al, 2018, pp.328-331) or the UAV (Li et al, 2016, pp.1377-1386).

EXIT NUMBERS. Exit numbers correspond with the mile markers. This change allows motorists to quickly calculate distances between exits, e.g., the distance between Exit 95 and Exit 20 is 75 miles.

OBJECTS ADJACENT TO THE ROADWAY. Objects close to the edge of the road sometimes need a marker to warn drivers of the potential danger. These include underpass supports, ends of bridges, guiderails, and other structures. In some cases, there may not be a physical object involved, but rather a roadside condition such as a drop-off or an abrupt change in the roadway alignment. Such roadside objects and conditions are indicated by the following markers, where the stripes are angled down in the direction you need to move to avoid the hazard:

If a yellow panel with the message EXIT ONLY is on a highway sign, the lane below the sign will not continue through the interchange; instead, the lane will go off of the road to form a ramp. If you are in a lane posted with an EXIT ONLY, you may change lanes, or you must exit the highway if you stay in this lane.

Alternative link https://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?artid=0042-84692104941M (html) https://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/0042-8469/2021/0042-84692104941M.pdf (pdf)

Today, UAVs have an exponential growth due to significant technological advances enabling numerous applications ranging from package delivery, traffic control, and video streaming to disaster recovery. Non Terrestrial Networks (NTNs) using UAVs in terms of high-altitude platforms and usage constellations of Low Earth Orbit satellites is going to be realized to provide global Internet service among many others.

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The supplemental arrow on this route marker assembly means you are approaching a right turn to continue on U.S. Traffic Route 22 West.

Finally, drone swarm control cooperative missions could be accomplished via control among different military combat and communication and control systems and applications intended for combat operations and warfare (Figure 8). Today militaries are moving ahead with attacks of swarming drones. For example, drones in swarms can be equipped for electronic warfare if needed, or swarms may consist of drones with guns, bombs, and missiles.

Icing on UAVs is a relatively new field of research with "unknown parameters". The electro thermal panel can be embedded in UAVs during the manufacturing process or attached to the existing wings. D.ICE uses two algorithms for icing detection. One is a thermal response from the heating zones; the other involves an aerodynamic approach in which the system estimates relevant parameters such as lift and drug and infers if they have degraded due to icing.

Mobile devices have become a very significant component of military operations, especially taking into account operations at the tactical edge. This implies that important portions of communications and processing are executed on resource-constrained and bandwidth-limited platforms and networks. One of the most critical aspects in military operations is providing the right information to the right person at the right time. A factor that simplifies searching for stored images in the cloud is that they may be processed before enabling quick search. The decision of where to do the process depends on the state of the military system, energy requirements, the quality of information objectives, and on what has been requested. As for video processing, one of the main problems is labeling all stored images/videos as fast as possible. When videos have been filtered by time and place, there are two steps for labeling, i.e., prime extraction and detection.

HILL/DOWNGRADE. There is a steep hill ahead. Slow down and be ready to shift to a lower gear to control your speed and to save wear and tear on your brakes.

WEAVE AREA. This sign is used to warn that you will be merging with another roadway as some traffic is exiting and crossing your path.

Local, state, and federal government websites often end in .gov. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania government websites and email systems use "pennsylvania.gov" or "pa.gov" at the end of the address. Before sharing sensitive or personal information, make sure you're on an official state website.

UAVs have a long tradition of more than one hundred years of development and exploitation. During this period of time, they have become one of the most important technology items which can be used both on its own and integrated in different systems and applications including cellular networks.

They may have to deal with huge data flow with low latency. To meet this demand, some communication technologies are considered for UAV swarms such as millimeter-wave, NOMA and cognitive radio (CR) (Saleem et al, 2015, pp.15-31).

If you are in a lane controlled by a sign with a turn arrow and the word "ONLY," when you reach the intersection, you must make the turn. You may travel only in the direction the arrow points, even if you are in the turn-only lane in error.

For example, to support the transport of a full high-definition (FHD) video from the UAV to the ground user, the transmission rate is about several Mb/s, while for a 4K video, it is higher than 30 Mb/s.

The next big step in drone technology occurred during Vietnam War which saw the first widespread deployment and use of drones as dedicated UAVs.

Next, 4G Long Term Evolution (LTE) is promising to support aerial users and UAV applications. LTE achieved the best performance in terms of latency and jitter with round trip time of 127 ms and a standard deviation of 48 ms for the worst case scenario (Afonso et al, 2016, pp.4-11). Such results demonstrated the feasibility of UAV operations over the LTE network with a low altitude of up to 100m.

Signs are divided into three basic categories: Regulatory, Warning, and Guide signs. Most signs within each category have a special shape and color.

CHEVRON SIGNS. There is a sharp change in the direction of the road, such as a curve to the left or right. The road bends in the direction the chevron points. When used in a curve, there will be an advanced curve warning sign, and there may be several chevron signs placed throughout the curve.

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ELECTRIC ARROW PANELS. Large electronic flashing arrow panels (move/merge right or left) placed in the roadway or mounted on vehicles advise approaching motorists of lane closures. Begin your merge well in advance of the sign. An arrow panel displaying either of the messages shown in the figure to the far right (caution) indicates there is a work area ahead next to the travel lane. Drive with extra caution.

For the energy efficient trajectory plan of a drone, it is very important to extend its service time. Due to the limited computing ability of a single drone, multiple drones are worth considering in order to simultaneously provide computing services, where the movement control, cooperation and the resource allocation of multiple drones require elaborate design.

SHARP RIGHT TURN. The road ahead turns sharply to the right. You need to slow down substantially, position your vehicle slightly to the right of the center of your lane and prepare to navigate through the sharp right turn. Some sharp turn signs have an advisory speed located on the sign or posted below it.

Pезюме: Введение/цель: В данной статье представлена история беспилотных летательных аппаратов (БПЛА) от их создания до интеграции в современные беспроводные сети.Методы: Проведен анализ, синтез и сравнение развития технологий БПЛА на протяжении всей их истории, с акцентом на значимые аспекты их интеграции в сети беспроводной связи. Результаты: В статье представлены важные аспекты беспроводной связи как одной из ключевых технологий для развития БПЛА. Также рассматривается энергоэффективность как направление для исследований БПЛА. Помимо вышеперечисленного, в статье описано настоящее состояние БПЛА и их перспективы в будущем. Выводы: БПЛА играют важную роль не только в различных военных операциях в боевых условиях, где они широко применяются, но они также могут быть полезны и для других целей, таких как, например, интеграция в сети 5G.

Li, K., Ni, W., Wang, X., Liu, R.P., Kanhere, S.S. & Jha, S. 2016. Energy-efficient cooperative relaying for unmanned aerial vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 15(6), pp.1377-1386. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/TMC.2015.2467381.

WindingRoad sign

RAILROAD CROSSING AHEAD. You are approaching a railroad crossing. When you see this sign, begin looking and listening for a train. This sign is placed far enough in advance to allow you to stop before you reach the tracks, if necessary. Refer to Chapter 3 for more information about railroad crossing safety.

The STOP sign is the only octagon-shaped (8-sided) sign you see on the highway. At an intersection with a STOP sign, you must stop completely, check for pedestrians and cross traffic to clear the intersection before you go again. Slowing down without coming to a full stop is illegal.

Lane Endssign

-Wikipedia. 2021. File:Archibal-Low.jpg [online]. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archibal-Low.jpg [Accessed: 15 August 2021].

A FOUR-WAY STOP sign means there are four stop signs at this intersection. Traffic from all four directions must stop. The first vehicle to reach the intersection should move forward first. If two vehicles reach the intersection at the same time, the driver on the left yields to the driver on the right. If facing one another both can proceed with caution, watching for possible turns.

SCHOOL. This is the only pentagon-shaped sign used on the roadway. It means you are approaching a school zone. If the sign is accompanied by a downward-pointing arrow, it means you are at the school zone crosswalk. You should slow down, watch for children crossing the road and stop, if necessary. This sign may have either a yellow background (as shown) or a fluorescent yellow-green background.

RIGHT CURVE. The road curves ahead to the right. You need to slow down and position your vehicle slightly to the right of the center of your lane, as you drive through the right-bending curve.

• One or two-digit, even-numbered interstates are generally east-west routes. Nationally, the numbers increase from I-10 in the south to I-94 in the north. In Pennsylvania, I-76 is in the southern part of the state, and I-84 and I-80 are in the northern part.

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MILE MARKERS. Mile markers are used on some highways to indicate the number of miles from the point where the traffic route entered the state or from its beginning, if it does not extend to the state borders. The numbers start at zero in the western part of the state for east-west roadways and in the southern part of the state for north-south roadways. The numbers increase as you travel east or north and decrease as you travel west or south. For example, when you enter Pennsylvania from the west on Interstate I-80, the mile markers begin at Mile 1 and increase as you travel east. Knowing how to read mile markers can help you to know exactly where you are and give an approximate location, if you have to call for roadside assistance.

• Three-digit numbered interstate highways connect to other major highways. If the first of the three digits is an even number, the highway usually connects to interstate highways at both ends, such as I-276 in Philadelphia. Many times such routes are known as "loops" or "beltways."

During this period, drone developers were focused on alternative power services for drones, where the main service was solar power. This led to some interesting solar-powered drones called AERO-Vironment HAL SOL. The High Amplitude (AAL SOL) Solar-powered unmanned aircraft was sponsored by the CIA in 1980s as the first solar-powered aircraft. Mini and micro versions of UAVs were introduced in 1990, while the Predator drone was introduced in 2000.

Conclusion: UAVs are important not only for widespread military usage in various combat operations and warfare environment, but also for other purposes such as their integration in 5G networks.

Today, there is a growing interest in leveraging the existing and future-generation cellular networks for enabling UAV-ground communication (Zeng et al, 2018, pp.120-127).

The red, white, and blue shield sign indicates a highway is an interstate. These interstates are specially numbered to help motorists find their way through unfamiliar areas. A code is used to show if the route travels mainly east and west or north and south, and to show if the route is in the eastern, middle, or western United States.

TRAFFIC SIGNAL AHEAD. A traffic signal is present at the intersection ahead. You may not be able to see it because of a curve or hill. If the light is red (or if the light has just turned green), a line of vehicles may be stopped ahead. When you see this sign, slow down and prepare to stop, if necessary.

INTERSECTION SIGNS. The signs below show types of intersections. By showing you in advance how the roads join each other, the signs let you know when the road you are traveling on does not continue straight through the intersection. The signs also warn you about possible problems with the movements of other vehicles. Approach all of these intersection types with extra caution by searching ahead and preparing to slow down, if necessary.

This sign is used in conjunction with a yield sign at a one-lane bridge or underpass location to alert motorists the one-lane roadway requires them to yield the right-of-way to opposing traffic.

Abstract: Увод/циљ: У раду је представљен историјат беспилотних летелица (БЛ) – од постанка до интеграције у савремене бежичне мреже.Методе: Коришћене су анализе, синтеза и упоређивање технологије развоја беспилотних летелица кроз историју са значајним аспектима интеграције у бежичне комуникационе мреже. Резултати: Представљени су важни аспекти бежичне комуникације, као једне од кључних технологија за БЛ. Разматрана је и енергетска ефикасност као пут истраживања беспилотних летелица. Такође, описује се садашња функција БЛ и предвиђа будућа комуникација са њима. Закључак: Беспилотне летелице нису важне само за широку војну употребу у различитим борбеним операцијама и ратном окружењу, већ и за друге сврхе, попут интеграције у 5Г мреже.

ADVANCED INTERSECTION/RAILROAD CROSSING SIGN. The intersecting road has a railroad crossing within a very short distance from the intersection. If you are planning to turn onto the intersecting road and if a train is approaching, be prepared to stop.

A direct line is used between an UAV and its associated ground node over, for example, the unlicensed 2,4 GHz band. It is direct point-to-point communication with a simple, low cost, limited range, low data rate, vulnerable to interference and non-scalable. The ground node can be a remote controller, a station etc. It is limited to LOS communication. In urban areas, communication can be easily blocked by trees or high buildings. As a result, this gives low reliability as well as low rate. The ground node needs to connect to a gateway for enabling the Internet access of the UAV. One such solution is insecure and vulnerable to interception and jamming. It should be noted that a solution with direct line communication cannot be a scalable solution for supporting large scale deployment in future applications.

RIMS CAD can recommend units for dispatch based on your agency's street files, beats, and plans. When you enter the location and Incident type, RIMS ...

These WORK ZONE signs are placed at the beginning and end of an active work zone. An active work zone is the portion of a work zone where construction, maintenance, or utility workers are on the roadway, or on the shoulder of the highway next to an open travel lane.

SHARP LEFT TURN. The road ahead turns sharply to the left. You need to slow down substantially, stay in the center of your lane and prepare to navigate through the sharp left turn. Some sharp turn signs have an advisory speed located on the sign or posted below it.

Campion, M., Ranganathan, P. & Faruque, S. 2018. A Review and Future Directions of UAV Swarm Communication Architectures. In: IEEE International Conference on Electro/Information Technology (EIT), Rochester, MI, USA, pp.903-908, May 3-5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/EIT.2018.8500274.

Zhan, C., Zeng, Y. & Zhang, R. 2018. Energy-efficient data collection in UAV enabled wireless sensor network. IEEE Wireless Communications Letters, 7(3), pp.328-331. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/LWC.2017.2776922.

LEFT TURN YIELD ON FLASHING YELLOW ARROW. This sign indicates a left turn is permitted when the yellow arrow is flashing, but you must yield to oncoming traffic. This sign is commonly placed at intersections, near the left-turn traffic signal, to inform drivers left turns are not protected when the flashing yellow arrow is operating.

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Also, there will be developments in improving drone optics. From the civilian point of view, improving flight time allows them to serve as delivery platforms, or to be used in emergency services and for data collections in a number of areas dangerous for humans, such as in power plants, fires, etc. Home security and crowd control are included too. Also, one important thing is miniaturization. As components become smaller and smaller, UAVs will be reduced in size; there will be, for example, microscopic drones in the future. Development in flight control algorithms, machine vision and onboard processing power will enable UAVs to make decisions themselves, rather than to rely on human input. In that way, the reaction time and speed will be improved. The flexible deployment along with strong line-of-sight links of UAVs are expected to make them an important component of 5G, and apart from being used in wireless networks, they are also to become components of various military systems towards the provision of ubiquitous any time connectivity (Li et al, 2019, pp.2241-2263).

-Wikimedia Commons. 2021c. File:Kettering-bug-1.jpeg [online]. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kettering-bug-1.jpeg [Accessed: 15 August 2021].

UAVs have a variety of applications in areas such as public safety, IoT, caching edge computing and smart cities, as well as in man-made and natural disasters like fires, floods, and earthquakes, providing wireless services to remote and unconnected areas. UAVs also assist ground wireless networks such as D2D communications and mmWave communications. Other applications include their usage in small and power limited devices for healthcare and transportation as well as for high data rate and low latency required in virtual reality applications. Also, the applications of UAV user equipment (UE) in scenarios of surveillance, package delivery, transportation, and remote sensing are of importance.

Satellites serve to link data transmitted between widely separated UAVs and ground gateways. This is of importance for UAVs above the ocean and also in remote areas in the case when terrestrial network (Wi-Fi or cellular) coverage is not of practical use. In addition, satellite signals are used for navigation and localization of UAVs. As for disadvantages, there are some of them. First of all, propagation loss and delay are significant because of long distances between satellites and low altitude UAVs/ground stations. Next, UAVs have stringent size, weight, and power constraints. Finally, high operational costs represent one kind of inconvenience for wider use.

Bekmezci, I., Sahingoz, O.K. & Temel, Ş. 2013. Flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs): A survey. Ad Hoc Networks, 11(3), pp.1254-1270. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2012.12.004.

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CHANNELING DEVICES. Barrels, tubes, cones, and vertical panels are all devices used in work zones to guide you through changing traffic patterns and keep you away from hazards associated with road work.

NO PASSING ZONE. This is the only pennant-shaped warning sign. This sign marks the beginning of a no-passing zone and is placed on the left side of the road facing the driver.

-Wikimedia Commons. 2021f. File:RQ-11 Raven 1.jpg [online]. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RQ-11_Raven_1.jpg [Accessed: 15 August 2021].

The drawback is a round-trip air-ground delay for UAV coordination. Also, the ground infrastructure is heavily loaded when the number of UAVs in a swarm becomes large. An alternative for a UAV swarm is UAV-to-UAV communication. Here the infrastructure, for example a cellular network, offers the back-bone connectivity between the aerial networks, between UAVs (Zeng et al, 2018, pp.120-127). Some common technical features can be provided, including moveable wireless devices, long communication distance between nodes, a sufficiently high data rate, minimized communication delay, and line of sight affected by weather conditions. Currently, 5G is being applied into commercial use. Drone swarms also play an important role in 5G networks (Figure 8).

Methods: It analyzes, synthesizes and compares the UAVs development technologies throughout their history with significant aspects of their integration in wireless communication networks.

Some models did exist, like the Ryan 147BS, but they were parachuted to the ground to gather information. Ryan's Model 147BS is a jet-powered drone, unmanned aerial vehicle produced and developed by Ryan Aeronautical from the earlier Ryan Fireface target drone series. The need for drones exists in many countries who explore the use of UAVs for different applications. New drone models are becoming more and more sophisticated. As for design, they focus on improving the height at which the drones could safety operate. Thanks to transistor technology, radio-controlled components are minimized enough for serving to civilian customer purposes.

UAVs have enormous potential in enabling new applications in various areas ranging from aerial inspection, photography, precision agriculture, traffic control, search, package delivery, telecommunications, medicine, surveillance, etc. Emerging technologies can benefit from significant potential of UAVs equipped with cameras, sensors and GPS receivers in delivery Internet of Things (IoT) services from great heats, creating an airborne domain of the IoT. Also, the Military Internet of Things (MIoT) represents a class of the Internet of Things for combat operations and warfare. On the other hand, the military IoT could be treated as an internal network with a group of distributed smart objects such as military vehicles, weapons, soldiers, equipment, etc. interconnected with the existing military infrastructure, command and control systems. However, there are many issues to be resolved before the effective use of UAVs can be made including security, privacy, and management.

Table 1 UAVs background No.NAMEYEARREASONDESIGNED BYCHARACTERISTICS 1.Earliest military drones1845-1850The war between Austria and VeniceAustrian forcesUnmanned balloons equipped with explosive 2.Gyroplane1905Work on the gyroplaneLouis Breguet with his brother Jacques and under the guidance of Charles RichetForerunner of the helicopter with flexible wings 3.Quadcopter configuration of drones1907All UAVs are dronesLouis Breguet with his brother Jacques and under the guidance of Charles RichetRotary-using aircraft that has 4 main rotors/propellers controlled or auto guided 4.Drone by Ruston Proctor1916Aerial targetRuston ProctorUsed against zeppelins 5.Archibald Low system1917Radio guidance systemArchibald LowFirst wireless rocket 6.Kettering Bug1917To represent “aerial torpedo”U.S. ArmyGyroscopic control intended to represent “aerial torpedo” 7.OQ-21930Radio control systemWalter Righter Small radio-controlled aircraft model 8.Queen bee1935Radio controlBritish radio controlRadio-controlled target drone 9.ID-2D-1 Curtiss TD-2D-11942Reverse-engineeredAmericansPulse jet-powered unmanned aerial drones 10.A V-1 'Doodlebug'1944Flying bombGerman armysimple autopilot to control altitude and air speed 11.SR-71 Blackbird1950Spy planeMach strategic reconnaissance aircraft developed and manufactured by Lockheed Martin Corporat.Long-range, high altitude No.NAMEYEARREASONDESIGNED BYCHARACTERISTICS 12.Ryan 147BS1950Jet-powered droneRyen AeronauticalTo recover any information gathered 13.HAL SOL1980Alternative power source for dronesSponsored by the CIASolar-powered aircraft 14.RQ2 Pioneer1986Building an inexpensive drone for fast operationsA join project by the U.S. and IsraelMedium-sized reconnaissance aircraft 15.Versions of UAVs1990Mini and macroAeroVironmentMini and macro Predator version 16.Predator2000To lunch missilesGeneral AtomicsMini and macro versions of UAVs 17.Raven, Wasp, PumaAfter 2000Small-sized fixed-wing dronesAeroVironment Inc.Fixed-wing surveillance drones 18.Commercial drone2006First commercial drone permit was issuedFAAPivotal year of the history of drones, with consumer application slow to start and with a small number of people applying for permits in the first few years 19.Drone-innovation2006-2015Commercial interestA lot of different manufacturersAs delivery vehicles 20.Operation rules of small UASs2016Operational rulesFAAUse of small devices with aircraft weight less than 25 kg (small unmanned aerial system UASs) 21.National program2017National program “Drone integration pilot program”FAATo explore the expanded use of drones including beyond visual line of sight flight, night time operations and fight over people

Zieliński, Z., WFrona, K., Furtak, J. & Chudzikiewicz, J. 2021. Reliability and Fault Tolerance Solutions for MIoT. IEEE Communications Magazine, 59(2), pp.36-42. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.001.2000940.

Hayat, S., Yanmaz, E. & Muzaffar, R. 2016. Survey on unmanned aerial vehicle networks for civil applications: A communications viewpoint. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 18(4), pp.2624-2661. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2016.2560343.

In 1917, Archibald Low, who was named the father of radio guidance systems, invented the first wireless rocket together with his research group. After this, the U.S. Army built the Kettering Bug with gyroscopic controls and intended to present an “aerial torpedo” (Figure 4).

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also known as drones, are aircraft piloted by remote control without human on board. Embedded computer programs are included, too. A drone tends to be defined in different ways. Two of them are as follows:

RAILROAD CROSSBUCK SIGN This sign is placed at a railroad crossing where the tracks cross the roadway. You should treat the crossbuck sign as a YIELD sign; slow down and prepare to stop, if you see or hear a train approaching. Refer to Chapter 3(opens in a new tab) for more information about railroad crossing safety.

Gonzalez, F., Walker, R., Rutherford, N. & Turner, C. 2011. Assessment of the suitability of public mobile data networks for aircraft telemetry and control purposes. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 47(3), pp.240-248. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2010.08.001.

The route marker sign and "TO" trailblazer sign and the supplemental arrow means if you want to gain access to U.S. Traffic Route 22, you must continue ahead.

-Wikimedia Commons. 2021d. File:Lockheed Sr-71.jpg [online]. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lockheed_Sr-71.jpg [Accessed: 15 August 2021].

- "A drone in technological terms is an unmanned aircraft. Essentially, a drone is a flying robot that can be remotely controlled or fly autonomously through software controlled plans in their embedded systems, working in conjunction with on board sensors and GPS" (Internet of Things Agenda).

RIGHT TURN SIGNAL. This sign is posted close to a traffic signal to indicate that the signal controls right-turn movements.

Another year in the history of drones was 2006 when the first commercial drone permit was issued. However, the number of people applying for permits in the first year was small. The huge expansion in drone innovation was evident in the last 10 years in commercial interest, too. For example, in the early 2010s, drones were used not only as military vehicles, but also as delivery vehicles. Around 1000 commercial drone permits were issued in 2015 and a demand for drones has continued to grow exponentially. The year 2010 might just be the so-called “golden age of drones”. The number tripled one year later. As a result of merging radio-controlled aircraft and smartphone technology, equipping drones with cameras is a new commonplace in commercial photography and videography. In 2013, a group of researchers examined emerging fields challenging for military: the buildup of ice on drones and other unmanned aerial vehicles. UAVs were not outfitted with protection to eliminate ice buildup. The prototype of the system was tested in 2015. Since then, the technology has been tested regularly in wind tunnels and on board during UAV flights. In 2016, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) released the operational rules for routine civilian use of small UAVs with aircraft weight less than 25 kg. In November 2017, the FAA launched the national program “Drone Integration Pilot Program” to explore the expended use of drones including beyond visual line-of-sight flying, night-time operations, and flights above people. Drones are becoming very attractive not only because of their fast deployment and low cost, but also because of their ability to hover (Hayat et al, 2016, pp.2624-2661). The size of air drone-cells can be adjusted by changing their altitude, transmission power antenna directivity, and other parameters, providing more adaptability to unstable traffic loads and variable user distributions (Ferranti et al, 2018, pp.1-12). Supporting aerial users with cellular networks goes back to the 2000s with the use of the global system for mobile communication (GSM) 2G (Goddemeier et al, 2010, pp.1760-1765). Later, UAV flight tests were conducted over 3G Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) networks. The 3G UMTS network could provide a possible solution for no safety-critical communications for aerial users with moderate speed and altitude of 1220m (Gonzalez et al, 2011. pp.240-248).

Must turnsign

In 1980, the U.S. began the UAV Program with the aim of building an inexpensive drone for fast operations. The development of the RQ2 Pioneer was the result of a joint project of the U.S. and Israel in 1986. It was a medium-sized reconnaissance aircraft (Figure 6).

Military networks are crucial in carrying out military actions. As images/videos are rich sources of information, the main challenge is to be in a position to issue a query over a large distributed set of devices to find concrete actions or objects of interest. The concrete MIoT solution architecture depends on a specific military scenario and the area of application (Zieliński et al, 2021, pp.36-42).

Unmanned aerial vehicle-drone networks are applied in the case of unexpected and temporal events. Each drone has wireless transceivers to communicate with the ground user equipment (UE) and other drones. Drones consist of equipment for receiving, processing, and transmitting signals in order to complement pre-existing cellular systems. In that way, the communication infrastructure becomes reinforced. This case can be of importance from the emergency and safety point of view (Milicevic & Bakmaz, 2020).

MIMO is one of the most important technologies when dealing with UAV military communications, because of command and control messages which require low latency and high reliability for application data such as, for example, video streaming. The beam forming gain provided by massive MIMO depends on the accuracy of channel slot information for all served users at each ground base station.

Expandi.io is a tool that enables automated outreach via LinkedIn for marketing or sales purposes.

In 1907, an early development of this technology appeared, called the quadcopter configuration. That year, Louis Breguet (Figure 1) and his brother together with the help of French physiologist Professor Charles Richet (Figure 2), developed a gyroplane, the forerunner of the helicopter. It should be noted that in 1905 Louis Breguet with brother Jacques and under the guidance of Charles Richet began work on a gyroplane, the forerunner of the helicopter.

CLASS 1 – EXPLOSIVES. Commonly Transported Explosives: 1. Ammunition/cartridges. 2. Fireworks/pyrotechnics. 3. Flares. 4. Blasting caps / detonators.

SHOULDER SIGNS. These signs are placed in advance of locations where the shoulder is lower than the road or the shoulder is soft (not paved). The LOW SHOULDER sign is used where the shoulder is as much as 3 inches below the level of the road. The SHOULDER DROP OFF sign is used for even more severe drop-off situations.

Freeway exitsign

A number of small-sized, fixed-wing surveillance drones such as Raven, Wasp and Puma, developed by AeroVironment Inc., were developed after 2000. Raven, for example, is used in many countries, with tens of thousands of units deployed (Figure 7).

ADVISORY SPEED SIGNS. This sign may be used with any diamond-shaped warning sign. The highest speed you should travel around a sharp left curve ahead is 25 mph.

Apply for a job, access victim & witness services, become a police officer, report a missing person, find my local police officers, get help after a sexual ...

Many academic and standardization groups have proposed the incorporation of CR and UAV communication systems to increase the spectrum opportunities (Saleem et al, 2015, pp.15-31).

- "An unmanned aircraft or ship guided by remote control or board computers" (Meriam Webster’s America’s most-trusted online dictionary for English word definitions and meanings).

-ITU (International Telecommunication Union). 2009. Characteristics of Unmanned Aircraft Systems and Spectrum Requirements to Support their Safe Operation in Non-Segregated Airspace, Report M.2171 [online]. Available at: https://www.itu.int/pub/R-REP-M.2171/en [Accessed: 15 December 2020].

A SPEED LIMIT sign indicates the maximum legal speed under ideal conditions for the stretch of highway where it is posted. Your safety may depend upon driving slower than the posted speed under poor conditions.

TOURIST-ORIENTED DIRECTIONAL SIGNS. These signs are square or rectangular and may be blue or brown with white lettering. The signs direct motorists to tourist attractions such as museums, historical landmarks, or state or national parks.

It should be noted that successive interference cancellation (SIC) relies on the channel state information at both the receivers and the transmitters to determine the allocated power for each receiver and the decoding order. One of possible problems is to eliminate the interlayer interference caused by multiplexing in the power domain. Next, the communication distance between the UAV and the ground user equipment would vary constantly based on the real-time requirements. Finally, the SIC decoding order determined by the received signal strength varies with the drone᾽s location.

British engineer Archibald Low (Figure 3) developed a radio guidance system in 1916 and during Word War I, he used it in the radio-controlled plane called the Ruston Proctor Aerial Target.

Abstract: Introduction/purpose: This paper provides an overview of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) from their early days to their integration into modern wireless networks.Methods: It analyzes, synthesizes and compares the UAVs development technologies throughout their history with significant aspects of their integration in wireless communication networks. Results: Important aspects of wireless communications as one of the key technologies for UAVs are presented. Next, energy efficiency as a research path for UAVs is considered. The paper also emphasizes the present state in this area as well as what the future of UAVs in communications will be. Conclusion: UAVs are important not only for widespread military usage in various combat operations and warfare environment, but also for other purposes such as their integration in 5G networks.

NARROW BRIDGE OR UNDERPASS AHEAD. Each lane on the bridge or underpass becomes narrower, and there generally is no shoulder. You need to slow down and make sure you stay in your lane. If a driver approaching from the opposite direction has a wide vehicle or is taking up part of your lane, wait until they clear the area.

Both CRC and payload communication requirements for UAVs can be met regardless of the density of UAVs and their distances with the corresponding ground nodes. There are scenarios where cellular services are not available (remote areas, sea, desert, forest). In this case, direct links, satellites and FANET are used to support UAV communication beyond the terrestrial coverage of cellular network. Thus, it is proposed that future wireless networks have an integrated 3-D architecture with UAV-to-UAV, UAV-to-Satellite and UAV-to-ground communication. In such a hybrid network, each UAV is enabled with one or more technologies to exploit rich connectivity diversity.

DIVIDED HIGHWAY. This sign means the road you are on intersects with a divided highway. The divided highway is really two, one-way roadways that are separated by a median or a guide rail. At the first roadway, you can only turn right, and at the second roadway, you can only turn left.

CENTER LANE LEFT TURN ONLY. This sign indicates where a lane is reserved for the exclusive use of left-turning vehicles in either direction and is not to be used for through traffic or passing.

RIGHT AND LEFT SHARP TURNS. The road ahead turns sharply first in one direction and then back in the other direction. Slow down substantially and prepare to navigate through the set of turns.

• When the first of the three digits is an odd number, the highway is usually a "spur" route connecting with another interstate at only one end, sometimes going into a city center such as I-180 in Williamsport.

Divided Highway Endssign

SET OF CURVES. The road ahead curves first in one direction and then back in the other direction (a set of two curves). Slow down and prepare to navigate through the set of curves.

Road signwithtwoarrows pointing left and right

When you see a crosswalk or a stop line (white top bar), stop before the front of your vehicle reaches the first painted line. If you cannot see traffic, yield to any pedestrians and then carefully pull forward past the line until you can see clearly. Check for traffic and pedestrians and then go ahead when the intersection is clear.

Wireless technology is necessary for providing seamless connectivity throughput with high reliability in the 3-D space when taking into consideration air-to-air and air-to-ground connections. The most important communication technologies are: direct line, satellite, ad hoc network, and cellular network. These communication technologies are used for military systems and applications in various combat operations, too. For example, applications for military uses involve: reconnaissance, armed attacks, targets for military training, etc.

ADDED LANE. This sign is placed in advance of a point where two roadways meet. It means merging is not necessary because the entering traffic uses a new lane that has been added to the roadway.

Usually, regulatory signs are black and white vertical rectangles or squares, like SPEED LIMIT signs. Some regulatory signs are black, white, and red, like the NO LEFT TURN sign with a circle and slash. Other regulatory signs are red and white, like STOP, YIELD, DO NOT ENTER and WRONG WAY signs.

Decoding the Interstate Numbering System. The numbers on the interstate shield can be a great navigational aid when you understand how they are developed. They generally follow this pattern:

TWO-WAY TRAFFIC AHEAD. The one-way street or roadway ends ahead. You will then be traveling on a road with two lanes of traffic moving in opposite directions. Stay in your lane to the right of the centerline. This sign may also be placed at intervals along the two-way roadway.

In the late 1950s, the U.S. spy plane, the manned SR-71 Blackbird, was still in development, while spy satellites were also not ready for deployment. Specialized UAVs were needed to safely gather information in control areas. SR-71 Blackbird was a long-range, high altitude strategic reconnaissance aircraft developed and manufactured by Lockheed Martin Corporation (Figure 5).

The ONE-WAY sign means traffic is allowed to move only in the direction the sign is pointing. If you turn onto a one-way street traveling in the opposite direction, you are likely to get into a head-on collision.

If you stray off of the roadway and one wheel drops off onto a low shoulder or a soft shoulder, do not slam on the brakes or steer sharply to try to get back onto the roadway — you can easily lose control of your vehicle! Refer to Chapter 3 for information about how to safely recover from drifting off of the pavement.

Table 2 UAV communications requirements specified by 3GPP DATA TYPEDATA RATERELIABLITYLATENCY UL (GROUND STATION TO UAVs)Command and control60-100 kbs10-3 packet error rate50ms DL (UAVs TO GROUND STATION)Command and control60-100 kbs10-3 packet error rate- Application dataUp to 50 kbs-Similar to terrestrial user (3GPP, 2017)

LEFT TURN YIELD ON GREEN. This sign indicates a left turn is permitted, but you must yield to oncoming traffic. It is commonly placed at intersections, near the left-turn traffic signal, to remind drivers left turns are not protected when the circular green signal comes on.

Also, it is important to emphasize that wireless communications with UAVs involve several typical use cases: UAV-aided ubiquitous coverage, UAV-aided relaying, and UAV-aided information dissemination/data collection. In the first use case, UAVs provide seamless coverage within the serving area, which is suitable for fast service recovery after infrastructure failure, as well as base station offloading in the hotspot application scenario. Next, in the second use case, UAVs connect two or more distant users or user groups thus supporting military operations, e.g. between the frontline and the headquarters, as well as enable big data transfer between data centers. Finally, in the third use case, UAVs provide periodic sensing and information multicasting.

Guide signs provide information about intersecting roads, help direct you to cities and towns, and show points of interest along the highway. Guide signs also help you find hospitals, service stations, restaurants, and motels. Usually these signs are horizontal rectangles.

You may not turn during the red light cycle at an intersection where one of these signs is posted. You must wait for the signal to turn green.

TWO DIRECTION LARGE ARROW. This sign is placed at the far side of a T-intersection to tell you that you can only go left or right. The road you are on does not continue straight through at the intersection.

LEFT CURVE. The road curves ahead to the left. You need to slow down, stay in the center of your lane, and prepare to navigate through the left-bending curve.

Turn on your headlights when traveling through a work zone, no matter what time of day. This is the law for all posted work zones, not just for active ones. Using your headlights makes your vehicle more visible to other traffic as well as to highway workers. If you are pulled over by police for a traffic violation in a work zone and your vehicle's headlights are not turned on, you will be fined an additional $25.

LOW CLEARANCE. This sign may be placed on an underpass, or at the entrance to a tunnel or parking garage. Do not enter if your vehicle is taller than the height listed on the sign.

This concept constitutes a promising network architecture that allows the coexistence of UAVs with terrestrial mobile devices working in the same frequency band.

Results: Important aspects of wireless communications as one of the key technologies for UAVs are presented. Next, energy efficiency as a research path for UAVs is considered. The paper also emphasizes the present state in this area as well as what the future of UAVs in communications will be.

To provide seamless communication service to ground users over a wide area, a swarm of UAVs constructs a multihop network. Such architecture has centralized coordination enabled by ground infrastructure with computing capabilities (Campion et al, 2018, pp.903-908).

Warning signs tell you about conditions on or near the road ahead. They warn you about possible hazards or changes in roadway conditions. They are posted before the condition, so you have time to see what is ahead, decide how you should respond, and slow down or change your travel path, if necessary. Warning signs are usually diamond-shaped with black symbols or words on a yellow background.

Each device in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) can move over time and its line conditions may change frequently with other devices. Two applications of MANET are vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) and flying ad hoc network (FANET) for supporting communications among high-mobility ground vehicles and UAVs in 2-D and 3-D networks, respectively (Bekmezci et al, 2013, pp.1254-1270).

Today, the key technologies are: multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), millimeters wave (mmWave) communication, non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) transmission, and cognitive radio (CR).

The following LANE USE CONTROL SIGNS (Directional) are placed at or near intersections above the traffic lane they control to show what maneuver(s) are permitted from that lane.

ROAD CLOSED FLOODING. This sign informs you that the road ahead is closed due to flooding. You must use an alternate route. Refer to Chapter 3 about what to do if you encounter a flooded roadway.

YIELD signs are triangular (3-sided) in shape. When you see this sign, you must slow down and check for traffic and give the right-of-way to pedestrians and approaching cross traffic. You stop only when it is necessary. Proceed when you can do so safely without interfering with normal traffic flow. Remember, you must have a sufficient gap in traffic before you can continue on at either STOP or YIELD sign locations.

CNPC is of low data rate, for example in the order of 60-100 kb/s for both downlink (DL) and uplink (UP) directions. On the other hand, reliability of less than 10-3 packet error rate and latency of less than 50 ms are required (Table 2). The communication requirements of CNPC links are similar for different types of UAVs due to their common safety - those for payload data are highly application-dependent. Compared to CNPC, UAV payload communication is characterized by much higher data requirements.

Zeng, Y., Lyu, J. & Zhang, R. 2018. Cellular-connected UAV: Potential, challenges, and promising technologies. IEEE Wireless Communications, 26(1), pp.120-127. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/MWC.2018.1800023.

HIGHWAY/EXPRESSWAY GUIDE SIGNS. The following three signs are examples of highway and expressway guide signs. They are green with white letters. Most highway and expressway signs are posted the same way. For example, there is usually one advance sign, which is followed by another advance sign. The third sign then is posted at the exit. Several signs are necessary because the high speed and heavy traffic on highways can cause drivers to miss seeing a single sign. Also, motorists may need to make one or more lane changes to exit.

SERVICE SIGNS. The following signs are examples of service signs. The signs are square or rectangular, are blue with white letters or symbols, and show the location of various services located at the next exit.

LANE ENDS. These signs tell you one lane on a multi-lane roadway will end ahead. In these examples, the traffic in the right lane must merge left.

Saleem, Y., Rehmani, M.H. & Zeadally, S. 2015. Integration of cognitive radio technology with unmanned aerial vehicles: issues, opportunities, and future research challenges. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 50, pp.15-31. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnca.2014.12.002.

This sign indicates that at the intersection ahead traffic in the left lane must turn left and traffic in the adjoining lane may turn left or continue straight.

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In the 1930s, the OQ-2 was a small radio-controlled aircraft model designed by Walter Righter. UAV technological developments continued. The U.S. Navy began experimenting with radio-controlled aircraft. The British developed “Queen Bee” which is a radio-controlled target drone also believed to have led to “drone” for radio-controlled unmanned aircraft. The first war-produced UAV product in the U.S. was a remote-controlled model airplane developed by British actor Reginald Denny and Walter Righter in the 1930s. Edward M. Sorensen was an inventor of a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight. He patented a ground terminal to track the movements of the airplane. The significance of this event should be noted because the early aircraft could only operate within the visual sight of the controlling pilot. The “Doodlebug” of the German army was the most notable event of the Second World War with regards to drones. This aircraft was the world’s first missile. Its guidance system used a simple autopilot to control altitude and air speed.

MERGING TRAFFIC. This sign is placed on a major roadway to tell you traffic may be merging into your lane from another roadway or a ramp. In this example, the traffic will be entering your lane from the right. Entering traffic must yield to traffic already on the major roadway.

Wireless communication is one of the technologies for UAVs. The reason is very simple. On the one hand, UAVs need to exchange information with a remote pilot, nearby aerial vehicles and air traffic controllers in order to provide the safe, reliable, and efficient flight operation. The general name for it is Controlled Non-Payload Communication (CNPC) (ITU, 2009). On the other hand, UAVs have to transmit and/or receive mission related data (areal image, high speed video, UAV operators, end users, ground gateway). This is payload communication.

The usage of smartphones reduces the price of microcontrollers, accelerometers and camera sensors, which are devices convenient for use in fixed-wing aircraft. Advances allowed a drone with 4 or more rotors to be controlled by adjusting the speed of individual rotors. The growing use of unregulated UAVs has also accelerated privacy and physical safety. In that way, the future becomes highly promising. As for drones, it will occur across the segments such as: agriculture, construction and mining, insurance, media, and telecommunications. Drones are expected to become smaller and lighter with much longer battery life and flight time.

Mergesign

Finally, energy supply was identified as one of major issues in aerial networks. In order to deal with this problem, the idea of deploying charging stations has been proposed by Z.W. Mekikis and Antonopoulos in 2019. However, UAV operators are expected to increase the limited space in charging stations.

The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) investigation has proved that the existing LTE networks support the UAV deployment with low density and low altitude without need of major changes. As the number of UAVs grows, it is of importance to develop new technologies to enable cellular-connected UAVs in term of 3-D aerial coverage and effective air-ground interference migration.

DIVIDED HIGHWAY BEGINS. The highway ahead becomes a divided highway with two one-way roadways and a median or divider separating traffic moving in opposite directions. Keep to the right of the divider or median.

-Wikimedia Commons. 2021e. File:RQ-2 Pioneer on launch rail 1.JPEG [online]. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RQ-2_Pioneer_on_launch_rail_1.JPEG [Accessed: 15 August 2021].

OPPOSING TRAFFIC HAS EXTENDED GREEN. This sign is posted where opposing traffic may continue to move after your signal has turned red.

Regulatory signs tell you what you must do, or must not do, according to the law. The regulations posted on these signs advise you about speed limits, the direction of traffic, turning restrictions, parking restrictions, etc. If you do not obey the messages on regulatory signs, you could be fined and receive points on your driving record because you are breaking the law. You also risk your safety and the safety of others by disobeying the messages on regulatory signs – for example, failing to stop at a stop sign, passing another car where it is not safe to pass, driving faster than the posted speed limit, or driving the wrong way on a one-way street.

Afonso, L., Souto, N., Sebastiao, P., Ribeiro, M., Tavares, T. & Marinheiro, R. 2016. Cellular for the skies: Exploiting mobile network infrastructure for low altitude air-to-ground communications. IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, 31(8), pp.4-11. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/MAES.2016.150170.

PEDESTRIAN CROSSING. Used at a marked crosswalk or in advance of locations where pedestrians may be crossing your path. Be prepared to slow down or stop, if necessary. This sign may have either a yellow background (as shown) or a fluorescent yellow-green background.

ONE DIRECTION LARGE ARROW. The road ahead changes direction at an extreme angle. Before you reach such an extreme curve, slow down as much as you would to make a turn at an intersection.

FLAGGER AHEAD (ROAD CONSTRUCTION AHEAD). The sign to the left shows a flagger is controlling traffic ahead. As shown below, flaggers use STOP and SLOW paddles or a red flag to signal you to stop or slow down. Pay special attention to flaggers when approaching and traveling through a work zone.

Onewaytrafficsign

Milicevic, Z., & Bakmaz, B. 2020. Drone Communications in 5G Network Environment. In: Bojkovic, S.Z., Milovanovic, A.D. & Fowdur, P.T. (Eds.) 5G Multimedia Communication:Technology, Services, and Deployment, Chapter X, pp.193-207. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group [online]. Available at: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9781003096450-10/drone-communications-5g-network-environment-zoran-milicevic-bojan-bakmaz [Accessed: 18.02.2019]. ISBN: 9781003096450.

BICYCLE/MOTOR VEHICLE SHARE THE ROAD. Used at roadway pinch points (no shoulder, narrow lanes, etc.) to warn you, as a motorist, to provide adequate space for bicyclists to share the roadway.

In 2017, the technology called D.ICE was commercialized by the university in Trondheim. With UAVs, just as with larger aircraft, the accumulation of ice during flight on wings, propellers, and tails can make it hazardous to fly and even cause them to crash. Frozen water on wings increases their weight thus reducing lift and can cause an aircraft to stall. Ice on the propeller can increase drag. Sensors can lock up interfering with the autopilot's ability to gauge speed and altitude.

Li, B., Fei, Z. & Zhang, Y. 2019. UAV communications for 5G and beyond: Recent advances and future trends. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 6(2), pp.2241-2263. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2018.2887086.

ROAD ENTERING CURVE. The main road curves to the left with a side road entering from the right. Approach the intersection with extra caution. A driver preparing to enter the main road may not be able to see you approaching from around the curve and may pull out in front of you, leaving you little room to avoid a crash, if you are traveling too fast.

Taking into consideration the UAV᾽s propulsion energy consumption, there are research interests on energy efficient UAV communications. This invokes design problems due to the new tradeoff between minimizing the UAV propulsion energy consumption versus maximizing the communication throughput.

NO TRUCKS, NO BICYCLES, and NO PEDESTRIAN CROSSING. Operators of trucks, bicycles, and pedestrians may not use roadways where these signs are posted.