Worker Safety: There is a moderate risk to worker safety and mainly involves working on heated earth and gasses and smoke.  Necessary PPE will likely be required.

Furthermore, down dip features like entries, mine seals, and reclaimed areas should be tested for stability associated with an increased hydraulic head pressure.

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Available Technology:  This application uses basic technologies.  More recent technologies such as inflatable dams could be used to enhance down dip seals preventing blowouts.

Worker Safety: There is a low to moderate risk to workers due to the proximity of the injection areas and the exhaust vents. Special monitoring and PPE are likely to be required.

Treatment Time:  Treatment time would be much faster than excavating the fire directly.  The reason is that only the surface is treated instead of the entire burning zone.

Available Technology:  This technology is the most recent of all the fire-fighting applications.  Therefore, only a few larger construction companies have access to this equipment.

Treatment by-products:  There is the possibility of steam pressure buildups, slope failures and mine seal blowouts related to increased water pressures along outcrops and entries.

Furthermore, down dip features like entries, mine seals, and reclaimed areas should be tested for stability associated with an increased hydraulic head pressure.

Design Considerations:  When designing the trench, keep in mind the burn rate to ensure the excavation of the trench can be completed prior to the fire reaching it.

Like barrier walls, there are two standard applications with a host of different materials to do the job.  The method of fire encapsulation is to reduce or eliminate the oxygen pathways to the fire.  This effectively starves the fire of oxygen thus decreasing the advancement potential or outright extinguishes the fire.  The two basic applications are:

Firefighting Costs:  Since the fire is not being fought, the associated costs are negligible. However, costs associated with the risks of leaving the fire; can be quite high.

This application involves filling mine voids and bedrock fracturing in and above the coal with grout or foam.  This creates a vertical non-combustible barrier which should slow the fire progression or prevent it from passing.

This method involves firefighting at the location of the underground fire. Because of the fire dangers, this method does not involve excavations or applications which place personnel in or near the fire.  As the title of this method specifies, the materials used to combat the fire are injected into the area of the fire.  Applications associated with this method include:

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Overall Effectiveness: This application is highly effective if the excavated trench encompasses the fire area.  The reason for the effectiveness is because the entire overburden is removed eliminating the chance of the fire to pass beyond the trench through thin coal seams or poor-quality coal left from the mining.  Effectiveness decreases for areas where trenching cannot be completed.

Environmental Impact:  High environmental impacts are possible and would be expected to be localized. As the water builds up within the fire area, the high temperatures will cause the water to become steam. This steam will pressurize if an open pathway of venting does not exist. This significantly increases the likelihood of mine blowouts, new vents, movement of mine gasses, and even surface steam eruptions.

Overall Effectiveness: This application is highly effective. The reason for the effectiveness is because the entire overburden is removed eliminating the chance of the fire to pass beyond the trench through thin coal seams or poor-quality coal left from the mining.

Environmental Impact:  The main gasses used in firefighting consist of liquid carbon dioxide and liquified nitrogen.  It is unknown how these heated gasses would affect the environment associated with large scale fires.

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Treatment Time:  Treatment time would be much faster than excavating the fire directly.  The reason is that using a semi-flowable injection material allows more coverage per injection point thus reducing the time needed for construction.

This application involves sealing all oxygen intakes and smoke, debris, and gasses vents horizontally over the ground surface within the fire area.  Beside intake and exhaust vents, this application also considers open bedrock fractures, either natural or subsidence related.  This application is typically used for larger mine fires to reduce expended gasses and smoke. This application can also be effective for preventing secondary fires caused by the mine fire.  Examples would include grass, forest, and structural fires. The seals are typically composed of local soils, however, alternatives such as compressed air, chemical, and water-based foams have also been used.

Overall Effectiveness: Similar to surface seals, this application is effective in reducing the available oxygen to the fire but should not be expected to extinguish it.

Worker Safety: There is a low risk to workers unless the mine fire is venting at the injection point.  If venting, special monitoring and PPE are likely to be required.

Worker Safety: There is a moderate risk to worker safety and mainly involves working on heated earth and gasses and smoke.  Necessary PPE will likely be required.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Costs associated with monitoring the fires’ progression are low and typically may include temperature observation wells, thermal imaging (aerial), etc.

When the fire travels into the ground from the surface it creates a thermal cycle. The thermal cycle consists of the fire heating the air causing it to rise and escape through passageways (fractures) in the ground.  The points on the ground surface where the heated air discharges into the atmosphere are known as vents.  The heated air carries the greenhouse gases, noxious fumes, soot, and smoke. These vents are extremely dangerous and pose a serious health risk.  Vents encountered or discovered need to be avoided, never get closer than 100 feet to a vent.

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This application calls for grout or foam to be injected into the waste pile to saturate voids with non-combustible materials. This saturation is two-fold, removing the oxygen from the fire and preventing it from moving to adjacent fuel sources.

Firefighting Costs:  Costs for this application are moderate to high due to the preliminary drilling for design and construction quantities, injection hole drilling, and the injection of grout or foam.

Mine fires or coal seam fires are Class “A” fires according to the U.S. Fire Administration.  Class “A” fires burn materials such as wood, paper, cloth all of which leaves ashes.  Common extinguishing methods for Class “A” fires is the use water or foam to cool or smother the fire.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are minimal to moderate, and the frequency should increase as the fire reaches the trench to ensure the effectiveness of the trench.

Structural Geology:  Grout and foam injections become more difficult to manage in areas where bedrock dip is not near horizontal.  Greater care would be needed when identifying injection holes, so the injected material won’t travel down slope.

Multiple Burning Seams:  This application is very useful where multiple burning seams are present.  One properly engineered trench would provide a barrier for all seams below.

Cutoff walls are designed to remove all overburden materials down to the depth of the fire.  The trench created is then backfilled with a non-combustible material which isolates the fire from the rest of the fuel source.

Design Considerations:   Consulting available mine mapping and local geology is critical when evaluating a mine fire for flooding.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are low to moderate and typically would involve the monitoring of the heat signatures.

Design Considerations:   As with all injection designs, available mine maps should be reviewed in conjunction with the fire data to determine the best injection points

Public Safety:  Public safety risks are low to moderate because once the entries are sealed, it is likely that exhaust fumes will find other pathways to reach the atmosphere.  This may cause exhaust vents to open in basements or other occupied structures.

Treatment Time:  Treatment time is high.  The reason is because the equipment cuts a 3-foot wide by 10 feet long trench to the desired elevation.  The cutting head is removed, and the trench is backfilled prior to the start of the next panel.  Backfill material will settle requiring topping off the trench panels over time.

The dry application involves the excavation and spreading of the waste pile in shallow lifts to allow for air cooling.  In most cases, additional material is added to help cool it.

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Injection - This method involves injecting flowable solutions or materials into the mine workings at or near the fire location.  This can limit or prevent oxygen from reaching the fire.

Worker Safety: There are high risks to workers safety when excavating burning materials. Controls need to be in place to cool equipment and protect workers from gasses, smoke, and soot.  When excavating refuse piles without a cooling aid, fire flare-ups are common as heated materials meet the atmosphere.

Firefighting Costs:  Costs for this application are high to very high due to the depth to the coal seams, equipment supports on subsided ground, and lack of companies with this type of equipment.

This application addresses the abandoned mine-entries.  The theory is that if the mine entries are sealed, this will reduce the available oxygen to the fire and restrict and cause a build-up of the exhaust fumes, smoke, and debris which will further choke the fire.

Multiple Burning Seams:  Tackling multiple burning seams is a possibility with this application.  When injecting the barrier, it might be necessary to treat multiple seams individually within the same injection hole.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are low and typically would involve the monitoring of the heat signatures.

Design Considerations:   Thermal imaging coupled with mine maps should be thoroughly reviewed to identify openings, shafts, or air intakes.  Locations of mine seals may also be important when determining entries to seal.

This type of mine fire occurs on coal waste piles. The fire ignites and burns on the coal fragments within the pile.  The firefighting applications follow the same methods as underground mine-fires, isolation, encapsulation, and injections.  The method and materials used varies based on site characteristics.

Structural Geology:  This application requires the bedrock to be dipping toward the fire area. Furthermore, down dip features like entries, mine seals, and reclaimed areas should be tested for stability prior to an increased hydraulic head pressure.

Worker Safety: There is a minor risk to workers if the trench is located away from the fire area.  If mine-fire gasses are present, personal protective equipment (PPE) will likely be required.

Treatment by-products:  There is the possibility of steam pressure buildups, slope failures and mine seal blowouts related to increased water pressures along outcrops and entries.

This application involves the removal of the public from the dangers of the mine fire.   Centralia, Columbia County, PA is an example of where this was used.  When attempts failed to extinguish the fire, monies were made available to residences, businesses, and utilities for relocation outside of the fire area.  Once public and private entities are out of harm’s way, the fire is monitored and left to burn. As in the case of Centralia, the fire has been burning more than 50 years.

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Treatment Time:  Treatment time is low.  Once intake and exhaust vents are identified, sealing them should be relatively quick.

Worker Safety: There is a moderate risk to workers due to potential asphyxiant hazard and working with super cold materials.   Special monitoring and PPE are likely to be required.

Coal mining states programs address mine fire and coal refuse fire related emergencies.  These fire emergencies can threaten to ignite forest fires and underground mines fires that can burn beneath buildings, roadways and grounds releasing deadly gases and causing mine subsidence. Abatement methods range from complete excavation and quenching with water, to the use of specialty foaming cements and firefighting foams that are injected into the fire through boreholes drilled from the ground surface.  Other techniques that may be used include the use of liquid nitrogen to extinguish the fire by the rapid removal of heat.

Available Technology:  This application uses more modern technologies.  With the lack of use on largescale mine fires, it is unknown if other technologies would be necessary.

Like flooding with water, this application floods the mine fire by saturating it with expanding foams, effectively removing the heat, and preventing oxygen from reaching the fire. This is accomplished by drilling injection holes into the mine workings near the fire. The expanding foam is pumped through the injection well into the mined coal seam or void spaces next to the fire where it spreads out. Over time the foam will expand, filling the voids and begins to suffocate the fire.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are minimal and would mainly consist of heat monitoring across the barrier to ensure effectiveness.

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According to e-AMLIS, in 2013 there were 98 underground mine fires in 9 states. This is considered to be an underestimate for the actual number of fires nationwide.

Public Safety:  Public safety risks are significantly reduced outside the fire area and trench locations. Site security may be required to keep spectators and trespassers out.

Structural Geology:  This application requires the bedrock to be dipping toward the fire area. Furthermore, down dip features like entries, mine seals, and reclaimed areas should be tested for stability prior to an increased hydraulic head pressure.

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Treatment by-products:  There is the possibility of steam pressure buildups in entries which are heated due to exhaust vents and the use of water-based foams.

Encapsulation - This method involves covering the fire indirectly with a medium which will limit or prevent the flow of oxygen from reaching the fire.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are low and typically consist of heat and gas monitoring and thermal imaging.

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Public Safety:  Public safety risk will lessen as the injections are constructed.  At a minimum, smoke and gasses will be diverted to other exhaust vents away from residences.

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Like the surface seal application for underground mine fires, this application covers the waste pile with non-combustible material (usually soil) to prevent the flow of oxygen, to attempt suffocating the fire.

Depth of Fire:  Application is generally for small scale mine fires (several acres) with overburdens approximately 70 feet or less.

Treatment by-products:  There is the possibility of steam pressure buildups in exhaust vents where water-based foams are used.

Environmental Impact:  High environmental impacts are possible and would be expected to be localized.  As the water builds up within the fire area, the high temperatures will cause the water to become steam. This steam will pressurize if an open pathway of venting does not exist. This significantly increases the likelihood of mine blowouts, new vents, movement of mine gasses, and even surface steam eruptions.

Worker Safety: There is a minor risk to workers if the wall is located away from the fire area.  If mine-fire gasses are present, personal protective equipment (PPE) and monitoring will likely be required.  When using water-based foams near the fire, steam buildup and subsequent explosions/venting can be a hazard.

Public Safety:  Public safety risk will lessen as the seal is constructed.  At a minimum, smoke and gasses will be diverted to other exhaust vents away from residences.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are relatively high.  In order to keep an effective seal, new exhaust and intake vents should be routinely identified and sealed.

Overall Effectiveness:  This application is effective in reducing the available oxygen to the fire but should not be expected to extinguish it.  This application is chiefly used to decrease the advancement of the fire and to seal exhaust vents where public hazards exist.

A fire can only be extinguished by removal of one of the legs of the fire triangle, shown below.  For coal to burn it must have a temperature of at least 150 degrees Fahrenheit, greater than 3% oxygen (21% oxygen in the air we breathe), and greater than 20% coal particles by volume.  Removal of any one of these items will result in the fire extinguishing.

Caveat: Coal mine fires or underground mine fires are generic terms for coal seam fires.  The reason the “mine” is used within the description is due to the starting point of the fire.  The majority of coal seam fires start within active or abandoned coal mines.  It is important to note that the mine itself is not on fire, but the remaining coal pillars, remaining coal seam, poor quality coal, or burnable debris left behind is what burns.

Depth of Fire:  This application is theoretically useful only on any size spoil pile.  The larger the pile the higher the costs.

Available Technology:  This application uses basic technologies.  More recent technologies such as inflatable dams could be used to enhance down dip seals preventing blowouts.

With the hot gases rapidly venting, this creates a negative pressure at the fire face.  Cooler, oxygenated air drawn from the outside atmosphere is pulled into the ground and ultimately to the fire, thus completing the thermal cycle.  As the fire spreads into the coal seam new vents can form and old vents can change becoming intake vents.

Environmental Impact:  High potential for environmental, structural, and public impacts.  Mine fires that burn unabated have an increased risk of igniting forest fires/grasslands, formation of new subsidence features, vents, and intakes, as well as expulsion of gasses and soot into the atmosphere.

Firefighting Costs:  Costs for this application are high to very high with most costs associated with delivery and injection of cryogenic gasses.

Public Safety:  Risk levels associated with this application are unknown of a large-scale basis. Risk of large quantities of heated carbon dioxide entering adjacent structures may create a potential asphyxiant hazard.  Oxygen or carbon dioxide monitoring would be recommended in these scenarios.

In all cases, the objective is to decrease the impacts of the fire on the public/environment or reduce the available fuel source for the fire.

Firefighting Costs:  This application can be costly.  The use of earthmoving equipment is expensive enough but adding fill material which will likely need transported to the site adds an additional cost.

Worker Safety: There is a low risk to workers unless the mine fire is venting at the injection point.  If venting, special monitoring and PPE are likely to be required.

Design Considerations:   Due to the size of the equipment and the potential depth of the trench, subsurface ground stabilization may be needed to ensure the hydromill trenching bit does not drift.

Worker Safety: There is a low to moderate risk to workers due to the proximity of exhaust vents.  Special monitoring and PPE are likely to be required.

Overall Effectiveness: This method is moderate at best. The reasons for this are due to the likelihood of eliminating all potential fire pathways is low.  In many cases, poor quality coals are left in place when mining occurred.  These may consist of roof coals, partings, or thinner seam splits as well as debris or gob (coal debris) or any other pathway where fire can spread across the barrier.

Design Considerations:  When investigating potential locations for the injected barrier, rotary core drilling would be very helpful in ascertaining the presence of remaining coals which may allow the fire to cross the barrier.  Also, remember to drill 5 to 10 feet past the floor of the mine to ensure there are pathways below the mined seam.  For deeper fires, where injection hole drift may be a factor; borehole vertical alignment monitoring may be advantageous.

Environmental Impact:  There is a low environmental impact which mainly encompasses the trench construction zone and the mine permit areas.  Gasses and soot would be isolated in the fire zone.

Underground coal mine fires occur around the world, sending thousands of tons of soot, toxic vapors, and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to pollution of surface and groundwater, mine subsidence as the coal is consumed, and ignition of forest and structural fires. Areas like the resort town of Glenwood Springs, Colorado has been plagued by series of suspected mine fire caused forest fires which burned thousands of acres of forest and many local residences.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are low and typically would involve the monitoring of the heat signatures.

Like all fires, the faster the response time the greater the chances of extinguishing it with minimal costs and environmental damages.

Overall Effectiveness:  This application is very effective when used as a fire-fighting suppression system in an active mine or in a small-scale fire.  The effectiveness decreases as the fire size increases.

Public Safety:  Public safety risks are eliminated for parties who relocate.  Individuals who choose to remain and spectators/trespassers onto mine fire lands continue to have elevated safety risks.

Environmental Impact:  There is a low to moderate environmental impact which mainly encompasses the injection zones and access roads.  Gasses and soot may be a present depending on the distance the barrier is from the fire.

Public Safety:  Public safety risks are moderately reduced beyond the injected wall and fire area. When using foam, there is a slight risk of groundwater well contamination for commercial or residential wells nearby the wall.  Water based foams may pose steam related hazard.

Overall Effectiveness: This application is more effective for burning coal piles than underground fires.  The main reason for this is that the void spaces between the spoil pile is greater than fracturing in bedrock.  This allows the injected material to move through the spoil creating a better seal.

Treatment Time:  Treatment time is low.  Once the injection point is opened, water can be injected until the mine fire is submerged.

Public Safety:  Public safety risks are low because at a minimum the exhaust vents are sealed preventing smoke and gasses from entering dwellings or igniting secondary fires.

Mine Fires: Majority of mine fires start through careless human activity, such as burning debris within an abandoned surface mine; however, mine fires can also start naturally via forest fires, lightning strikes, lava flows or other natural heat sources.

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Environmental Impact:  High potential for environmental impacts.  Mine fires which burn unabated have the increased risk of igniting forest fires/grasslands, formation of new subsidence features, formation of new vents and intakes, as well as expulsion of gasses and soot into the atmosphere.

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Treatment Time:  Treatment time is low.  Once intake and exhaust vents are identified, sealing them should be relatively quick.

Available Technology:  Other than the standard injection technologies, the use of vertical injection hole tracking may be needed.

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Design Considerations:   When engineering the seal, the use of thermal imagery can be a valuable indicator of exhaust vents.  Intake vents are going to be more difficult to identify.  Beehive smokers or dry ice can be used to create a cloud which may be drawn into larger intake vents.

In the wet application, excavated material is doused with water or foam to begin the cooling process. After the addition of the water or foam, the rest of the treatment is the same as in the dry application.

Environmental Impact:  There is moderate environmental impact which mainly encompasses the cut-off wall construction zone and access roads.  Gasses and soot may be a present depending on the distance the barrier is from the fire.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are low and typically consist of heat and gas monitoring and thermal imaging.

Firefighting Costs:  This application is much more cost effective than excavation.  This application is also more useful on larger fires.

This application floods the fire with water, effectively removing the heat and thus extinguishing the fire.  To accomplish this, mine portals are opened or cleaned out to allow the water to flow into the mine.  It may also be necessary to create a containment dam that allows the waters to rise in the mine.

The cryogenics application injects a combination of liquid carbon dioxide and nitrogen into the fire area.  The method is that the super cold gasses will remove the heat from the fire, effectively extinguishing it.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are low to moderate because settlement within the trench panels would require more material. Monitoring would mainly consist of heat monitoring across the barrier to ensure effectiveness.

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Firefighting Costs:  Costs associated with the removal/relocation of private, public, and business structures can have a high cost.  Furthermore, as the fire continues to burn and spread out, new areas of

Design Considerations:   Consulting available mine mapping and local geology is critical when evaluating a mine fire for flooding.

There are two main applications associated with these methods.  In each case, an attempt is made to create a physical non-burnable barrier between the fire and fuel source.  As with other methods within this category, the goal is to decrease the amount of available fuel for the fire.  They include:

Overall Effectiveness: The overall effectiveness is moderate. The removal of public and private residences from the fire zone decreases the human interactions to low risk, however all other aspects associated with a mine fire remain high.

Firefighting Costs:  Excavation and/or blasting costs can be expensive.  However, the costs are moderate because of the smaller size of the burn area and overburdens.   This application may also be used in conjunction with other firefighting applications.

Firefighting Costs:  Costs for this application are typically low with most costs associated with mine entry opening and water delivery.

A mine fire can also at times be a Class “B” fire when pockets of methane are encountered.  This would cause a flash or fire ball which may burn for several minutes to several hours dependent on the amount of available methane.  Fortunately, these Class “B” fires occur underground and would not be noticeable above the ground surface.

Overall Effectiveness: This application is very effective and deals with the fire directly.  However, it is useful on smaller fires only.

The reality of fighting underground fires is that a combination of methods presented below can be used as well as other firefighting techniques.

Environmental Impact:  There is moderate environmental impact especially on larger fires where injection points are numerous and spread across the surface horizontally.

If you discover a vent where there is not an immediate health or fire risk, contact your states abandoned mine lands office and notify them of your discovery.

Firefighting Costs:  Costs for this application are typically low.  Excavations may be necessary to ensure an effective seal.

Maintenance and Monitoring Costs: Maintenance and monitoring costs are low and typically consist of heat monitoring and thermal imaging.

A risk of asphyxiant is present at injection sites where carbon dioxide may displace oxygen in localized areas, even within an outdoor setting.

Firefighting Costs:  Costs for this application are typically low with most costs associated with mine entry opening and water delivery.

The ignition temperature for coal is dependent on the type of coal and its moisture content.  The temperatures listed below are rough average temperatures of the types of coal as compared to wood.

Worker Safety: There is a minor to moderate risk to workers as properties are purchased and demolished.  Mine fire gasses may be present in abandoned structures requiring special monitoring and personal protective equipment (PPE).

Firefighting Costs:  Costs for this application are typically lower than isolation costs.  Mainly, much of this application deals with surface or near surface areas.

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Surface trench application involves excavating an open trench in the unburnt coal seam ahead of the fire and removing the fuel (coal).  This method decreases the available fuel for the fire.  The fire is then left to burn until it is extinguished by lack of fuel.

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Worker Safety: There is a minor risk to workers if the wall is located away from the fire area.  If mine-fire gasses are present, personal protective equipment (PPE) and monitoring will likely be required.

This application is used when the cost of extinguishing the fire is more than the costs of relocating affected residences.

Treatment Time:  Treatment time is low.  Once the injection point is opened, water can be injected until the mine fire is submerged.