Reflection in waves is the phenomenon where a wave encounters a boundary or interface and is turned back into its original medium. Unlike wave refraction, which involves a change in direction and medium, reflection keeps the wave in the same medium but reverses its direction.

During earthquakes, seismic waves refract as they pass through different layers of the Earth. This helps seismologists understand the Earth’s internal structure.

\theta_1=\theta_2 Both angles are measured relative to the normal line, which is the imaginary line perpendicular to the boundary at the point where the wave hits. If a wave hits a boundary head-on, it will be reflected back along the same path. Examples of Reflection in Waves Let’s consider some examples. An echo is a sound that is reflected off a surface and heard again. For instance, if you shout in a large empty room or in a mountain range, you might hear your own voice coming back to you as an echo. A mirror is another classic example of light wave reflection. The light waves from an object hit the smooth surface of the mirror and are reflected back, forming an image. A technological application of reflection occurs with radar and sonar. These technologies use reflected radio or sound waves to determine the distance to an object. A signal is sent out, and the time it takes for the signal to return after reflecting off an object is measured. Understanding how reflection works in waves provides a basis for many technologies and natural phenomena. It’s a concept that you can easily observe in the world around you, offering both scientific insight and everyday applications. Explore Reflection in Waves on Albert Wave Refraction Refraction in waves refers to the bending or change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium into another. This bending occurs because the speed of the wave varies in different media, causing the wave to alter its course. Explanation of Wave Refraction When a wave encounters a change in medium, its speed and wavelength can change, while its frequency remains constant. The change in speed leads to a change in the wave’s direction, causing it to bend.  When working with light waves and optics, we often refer to Snell’s Law. This is the mathematical formulation for wave refraction: n_1 \sin\theta_1 = n_2 \sin\theta_2 Here, n_1 and n_2  are the indices of refraction for the first and second mediums, respectively, \theta_1 and \theta_2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, also respectively. The index of refraction is a dimensionless number that describes how fast light travels through a material. The higher the index, the slower the speed of light in that medium. For example, the index of refraction of air is approximately 1, while for water, it’s about 1.33. Examples of Wave Refraction One of the most common examples is the bending of light as it passes from air into water, like when you look at a straw in a glass of water and it appears bent or broken at the surface. Sound waves can also experience refraction due to temperature gradients in the air. This can cause sound to be heard over greater distances at night when the air near the ground is cooler than the air above. During earthquakes, seismic waves refract as they pass through different layers of the Earth. This helps seismologists understand the Earth’s internal structure. Interested in an Albert school license? Diffraction in a Wave Diffraction is another fascinating behavior that waves exhibit when they encounter obstacles or openings. Unlike reflection and refraction, which involve the redirection of waves, diffraction is all about the bending and spreading of waves around barriers or through openings. This phenomenon allows waves to propagate into regions of space that are geometrically shadowed by obstacles. Explanation of Diffraction in a Wave When a wave encounters a barrier with an opening that is approximately the same size as its wavelength, the wave will bend and spread out as it passes through. The greater the wavelength relative to the size of the opening or obstacle, the more significant the diffraction will be. Examples of Diffraction One example you might be familiar with is sound moving around a corner. If you stand around the corner from a marching band, you can still hear the music even though you’re not in a direct line of sight. This is because sound waves diffract or bend around corners. Have you ever noticed how you can still get a radio signal inside a building or among tall structures? That is also thanks to the diffraction of radio waves around obstacles. In light waves, when light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads out on the other side. This phenomenon can be easily observed in a variety of optical experiments, like Young’s double-slit experiment. Further technological applications occur in medical imaging. Techniques like X-ray crystallography rely on the diffraction of X-rays through biological tissues or crystal structures to create images. Understanding diffraction adds another layer to our comprehension of how waves interact with their environment. This knowledge has a wide range of applications, from engineering to medicine, and can be seen in various phenomena around us. Conclusion In summary, understanding how reflection, refraction, and diffraction occur in waves provides valuable insights into the world around us. We’ve explored how waves bend, bounce, and spread, detailing each phenomenon with practical examples. Whether it’s the science behind a rainbow, the echo in a hall, or why you can hear a conversation from around a corner, these fundamental concepts illuminate the mechanics at play. This foundational knowledge not only enhances our appreciation for everyday occurrences but also paves the way for technological advancements in various fields. So the next time you witness an intriguing wave behavior, you’ll likely understand the science that makes it possible.

Extremeultraviolet lithography machine

According to Naulleau, the tiny wavelength in EUVL is very close to X-ray light and therefore requires new instruments that far exceed the capabilities of early lithography, which employed longer and less energetic wavelengths of visible and ultraviolet light. (On the electromagnetic spectrum, a system scientists use to classify all ranges of light according to their corresponding wavelength, X-ray light ranges from 0.01 to 10 nanometers; extreme ultraviolet or EUV light ranges from 10 to 124 nanometers; and UV light from 124 to 400 nanometers, Naulleau explains.)

The Lumentum APD chip is an indium phosphide (InP) based device designed for high performance telecoms receiver applications up to 11.3 Gbps.

DOE’s Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit energy.gov/science.

Founded in 1931 on the belief that the biggest scientific challenges are best addressed by teams, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and its scientists have been recognized with 14 Nobel Prizes. Today, Berkeley Lab researchers develop sustainable energy and environmental solutions, create useful new materials, advance the frontiers of computing, and probe the mysteries of life, matter, and the universe. Scientists from around the world rely on the Lab’s facilities for their own discovery science. Berkeley Lab is a multiprogram national laboratory, managed by the University of California for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science.

Both angles are measured relative to the normal line, which is the imaginary line perpendicular to the boundary at the point where the wave hits. If a wave hits a boundary head-on, it will be reflected back along the same path.

Here, n_1 and n_2  are the indices of refraction for the first and second mediums, respectively, \theta_1 and \theta_2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, also respectively.

Q: What is the CXRO doing now to push chip innovation forward? During the pandemic, we continued to partner with Intel and Samsung to push the capabilities of our next generation EUV lithography research tools and to develop new chemical analysis tools that allow us to understand the fundamental physics of how photoresists work.

Diffraction is another fascinating behavior that waves exhibit when they encounter obstacles or openings. Unlike reflection and refraction, which involve the redirection of waves, diffraction is all about the bending and spreading of waves around barriers or through openings. This phenomenon allows waves to propagate into regions of space that are geometrically shadowed by obstacles.

One example you might be familiar with is sound moving around a corner. If you stand around the corner from a marching band, you can still hear the music even though you’re not in a direct line of sight. This is because sound waves diffract or bend around corners. Have you ever noticed how you can still get a radio signal inside a building or among tall structures? That is also thanks to the diffraction of radio waves around obstacles.

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Collection: Machine Vision Cameras and Accessories.

Advancing microelectronics is a strategic R&D direction for Berkeley Lab, and the CXRO’s activities over the last 25 years are a major component to that. In addition to collaborating with the semiconducting industry to extend Moore’s Law, CXRO researchers are also helping other Berkeley Lab scientists develop next-generation chips that are also more energy efficient than conventional silicon chips.

When working with light waves and optics, we often refer to Snell’s Law. This is the mathematical formulation for wave refraction:

Let’s consider some examples. An echo is a sound that is reflected off a surface and heard again. For instance, if you shout in a large empty room or in a mountain range, you might hear your own voice coming back to you as an echo. A mirror is another classic example of light wave reflection. The light waves from an object hit the smooth surface of the mirror and are reflected back, forming an image.

Refraction in waves refers to the bending or change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium into another. This bending occurs because the speed of the wave varies in different media, causing the wave to alter its course.

Then, a sophisticated camera called a lithography tool projects images of tiny circuits onto the photoresist-coated wafer using EUV light at a wavelength of 13.5 nanometers. The photoresist captures the ultrahigh resolution image of the computer chip circuits.

We’re one of the first DOE labs to develop the basic research for EUVL systems – so industry relies on us to develop new EUV research and development instrumentation such as advanced microfield lithography and microscopy tools.

Since the 1960s, the chip industry has relied on lithography – a technique that uses light to print tiny patterns on silicon to mass produce microchips. Through the decades, advances in lithography have enabled the use of smaller and smaller wavelengths and thus fabricate smaller transistors. During the early years of chip innovation, lithography tools once used visible light, with wavelengths as small as 400 nanometers (nm), and then ultraviolet light (as small as 248 nm) and deep ultraviolet light (193 nm).

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If 1 px is 0,2645833333 mm, then you have 3,779527560 px/mm. There's 25,4 mm/inch, so that makes it 96,00000002, so it uses a 96 px/in (dpi) ...

Q: How is EUV lithography used to make microchips? Naulleau:First, a photoresist is spread on top of a silicon wafer. A photoresist is a light-sensitive chemical film like we used to use in old-school film cameras.

In summary, understanding how reflection, refraction, and diffraction occur in waves provides valuable insights into the world around us. We’ve explored how waves bend, bounce, and spread, detailing each phenomenon with practical examples. Whether it’s the science behind a rainbow, the echo in a hall, or why you can hear a conversation from around a corner, these fundamental concepts illuminate the mechanics at play. This foundational knowledge not only enhances our appreciation for everyday occurrences but also paves the way for technological advancements in various fields. So the next time you witness an intriguing wave behavior, you’ll likely understand the science that makes it possible.

The index of refraction is a dimensionless number that describes how fast light travels through a material. The higher the index, the slower the speed of light in that medium. For example, the index of refraction of air is approximately 1, while for water, it’s about 1.33.

A better estimate is obtained using the Gaussian beam propagation model to calculate the divergence angle. This model allows the divergence angle to be ...

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Understanding the behavior of mechanical waves is essential for grasping many phenomena in our daily lives, from the echo of sound in a hall to the bending of light in a glass of water. In this post, we’ll focus on three fundamental concepts: reflection in waves, wave refraction, and diffraction in a wave. Whether you’re a student looking to solidify your understanding or just curious about how waves interact with their environment, this post will illuminate the science behind refraction, reflection, and diffraction.

The classification of waves primarily depends on how they move and what medium they require for propagation. Here are some basic categorizations of types of waves and how they propagate:

That’s our value add – we do the fundamental research needed to accelerate technology a decade ahead of the game because the microchip industry doesn’t have time to wait.

A technological application of reflection occurs with radar and sonar. These technologies use reflected radio or sound waves to determine the distance to an object. A signal is sent out, and the time it takes for the signal to return after reflecting off an object is measured.

In 2001, as EUV lithography gained more traction across the industry as a whole, we kicked off a partnership with SEMATECH, which was a broad-based semiconductor industry consortium, to continue pushing EUV lithography research forward.

Some analysts say that the end of Moore’s Law is near. But it could be decades before the modern chip runs out of room for improvement, thanks to advances in materials and instrumentation enabled by the CXRO, Naulleau says.

Q: How has CXRO helped drive innovation in chip making? The CXRO has helped industry understand the fundamental science behind EUVL, and how to push the technology forward.

The photoresist-coated wafer is loaded into the lithography tool and projected with tiny circuits using an EUV light. (Credit: Marilyn Sargent/Berkeley Lab)

Today, the chip industry has entered a new era: extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL), a revolutionary technique that deploys short wavelengths of just 13.5 nanometers, which is about 40 times smaller than visible light and 20 times smaller than UV light. Such a short EUV wavelength allows the microelectronics industry to print microchip circuits and transistors that are tens of thousands of times thinner than a strand of human hair – and buy more time for Moore’s Law, which predicted in 1965 that the number of transistors placed on a chip would double every two years until the technology reached its limitations in miniaturization and performance.

When a wave encounters a change in medium, its speed and wavelength can change, while its frequency remains constant. The change in speed leads to a change in the wave’s direction, causing it to bend.

The Abbe number, also known as the V-number or constringence of a transparent material, is a measure of the material's dispersion (the variation of ...

When a wave encounters a barrier with an opening that is approximately the same size as its wavelength, the wave will bend and spread out as it passes through. The greater the wavelength relative to the size of the opening or obstacle, the more significant the diffraction will be.

When a wave encounters an obstacle or a boundary, part or all of the wave can be reflected, depending on various factors like the angle of incidence and the properties of the reflecting surface. The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection:

The way you could categorize the systems are endo and exoatmospheric. Exoatmospheric is satellite to satellite communication. Very useful, very ...

“When you’re talking about the future of semiconductor manufacturing, we’re talking about extending Moore’s Law – and that has been our primary focus for decades,” says Patrick Naulleau, a leading expert in the complex science behind EUVL and the director of the Center for X-Ray Optics, a research facility located at the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab).

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EUV lithography was recently commercialized in 2019, but it took decades of research to get there, much of which was made possible by the unique capabilities of the CXRO. For the past 25 years, CXRO scientists and engineers have worked side by side with microelectronics industry leaders to tackle the significant technological advances required to develop EUVL.

n_1 \sin\theta_1 = n_2 \sin\theta_2 Here, n_1 and n_2  are the indices of refraction for the first and second mediums, respectively, \theta_1 and \theta_2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, also respectively. The index of refraction is a dimensionless number that describes how fast light travels through a material. The higher the index, the slower the speed of light in that medium. For example, the index of refraction of air is approximately 1, while for water, it’s about 1.33. Examples of Wave Refraction One of the most common examples is the bending of light as it passes from air into water, like when you look at a straw in a glass of water and it appears bent or broken at the surface. Sound waves can also experience refraction due to temperature gradients in the air. This can cause sound to be heard over greater distances at night when the air near the ground is cooler than the air above. During earthquakes, seismic waves refract as they pass through different layers of the Earth. This helps seismologists understand the Earth’s internal structure. Interested in an Albert school license? Diffraction in a Wave Diffraction is another fascinating behavior that waves exhibit when they encounter obstacles or openings. Unlike reflection and refraction, which involve the redirection of waves, diffraction is all about the bending and spreading of waves around barriers or through openings. This phenomenon allows waves to propagate into regions of space that are geometrically shadowed by obstacles. Explanation of Diffraction in a Wave When a wave encounters a barrier with an opening that is approximately the same size as its wavelength, the wave will bend and spread out as it passes through. The greater the wavelength relative to the size of the opening or obstacle, the more significant the diffraction will be. Examples of Diffraction One example you might be familiar with is sound moving around a corner. If you stand around the corner from a marching band, you can still hear the music even though you’re not in a direct line of sight. This is because sound waves diffract or bend around corners. Have you ever noticed how you can still get a radio signal inside a building or among tall structures? That is also thanks to the diffraction of radio waves around obstacles. In light waves, when light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads out on the other side. This phenomenon can be easily observed in a variety of optical experiments, like Young’s double-slit experiment. Further technological applications occur in medical imaging. Techniques like X-ray crystallography rely on the diffraction of X-rays through biological tissues or crystal structures to create images. Understanding diffraction adds another layer to our comprehension of how waves interact with their environment. This knowledge has a wide range of applications, from engineering to medicine, and can be seen in various phenomena around us. Conclusion In summary, understanding how reflection, refraction, and diffraction occur in waves provides valuable insights into the world around us. We’ve explored how waves bend, bounce, and spread, detailing each phenomenon with practical examples. Whether it’s the science behind a rainbow, the echo in a hall, or why you can hear a conversation from around a corner, these fundamental concepts illuminate the mechanics at play. This foundational knowledge not only enhances our appreciation for everyday occurrences but also paves the way for technological advancements in various fields. So the next time you witness an intriguing wave behavior, you’ll likely understand the science that makes it possible.

Researchers check the wafer after etching tools transfer circuit patterns onto the surface. (Credit: Marilyn Sargent/Berkeley Lab)

Extreme UVwavelength

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In this clean room at Berkeley Lab’s Center for X-Ray Optics, researchers use extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) to advance the creation of next-generation, ultra-small computer chips. A human hair is 50–100 micrometers. Each image from the EUVL system is 200 x 30 micrometers and is extremely information-rich.

Chips consist of miniaturized components called transistors – tiny silicon switches that process and store data as ones and zeroes, the binary language of computers. The more transistors a chip has, the faster it can process data. The most sophisticated chip today is about the size of a fingernail and consists of more than 100 billion transistors.

Right now, our latest lithography tools are able to produce features that are smaller than can be reliably recorded in the photoresist, so the most immediate challenge the industry is facing is in the understanding and development of new photoresist materials that will enable fabrication of chips at the 14-angstrom node (1.4 nanometers) and below. (1 angstrom is 10 million times smaller than a millimeter – or the approximate size of a single hydrogen atom.)

Understanding how reflection works in waves provides a basis for many technologies and natural phenomena. It’s a concept that you can easily observe in the world around you, offering both scientific insight and everyday applications.

With increasing efficiency in the design of lighting fixtures and the study of lighting requirements, came a demand for improved reflecting surfaces-improved as ...

Despite the successful commercial launch of EUV lithography in 2019, there’s still more basic science work to be done to keep the technology moving forward – and we continue to partner with Intel, Samsung, and other industry leaders in the drive to develop future EUV lithography systems capable of printing ever smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient chips.

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In light waves, when light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads out on the other side. This phenomenon can be easily observed in a variety of optical experiments, like Young’s double-slit experiment. Further technological applications occur in medical imaging. Techniques like X-ray crystallography rely on the diffraction of X-rays through biological tissues or crystal structures to create images.

Understanding diffraction adds another layer to our comprehension of how waves interact with their environment. This knowledge has a wide range of applications, from engineering to medicine, and can be seen in various phenomena around us.

Extreme uvlithography

In 1997, Intel, IBM, AMD, and Motorola formed the EUV LLC consortium to fund work at three national labs – Berkeley Lab, Livermore Lab, and Sandia – to develop the world’s first EUV lithography scanner for the semiconductor industry. I had just completed my Ph.D. when I was recruited by CXRO to work on the project. I’m proud to say that our work helped lay the foundation for the full commercialization of EUV lithography, which finally happened in 2019.

Extreme UVtoday

Waves are disturbances that propagate through a medium or space, transporting energy from one point to another without causing a permanent displacement of the medium itself. In simpler terms, waves are a way for energy to move through materials or even in a vacuum (as in the case of light waves).

Advances in microelectronics – also known as microchips or chips – have enabled fast, powerful, compact smartphones and laptops – electronic devices that were once, long ago, the stuff of science fiction.

Berkeley Lab scientist unpacks and prepares a new 12-inch silicon wafer which will eventually form hundreds of computer chips after EUV lithography treatment. (Credit: Marilyn Sargent/Berkeley Lab)

After the images of the circuits are recorded in the photoresist film, etching tools are used to transfer those circuit patterns into the silicon wafer, eventually forming hundreds of computer chips on each 12-inch wafer.

One of the most common examples is the bending of light as it passes from air into water, like when you look at a straw in a glass of water and it appears bent or broken at the surface. Sound waves can also experience refraction due to temperature gradients in the air. This can cause sound to be heard over greater distances at night when the air near the ground is cooler than the air above.

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Q: How does the CXRO produce EUV light? For the past 25 years, CXRO’s EUVL instruments have harnessed light from Berkeley Lab’s Advanced Light Source, a synchrotron user facility that produces very bright extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray light that’s guided down highly specialized instruments called “beamlines” to experiment stations.