The goal in controlling multiple compressors is to automatically maintain the lowest and most constant pressure, through all flow conditions, while ensuring all running compressors except one are either running at full load or off. The remaining compressor (trim unit) should be the one most capable of running efficiently at partial loads.

Lubricant Injected Rotary Screw. The lubricant injected rotary screw compressor is the dominant type of industrial compressor for a perse set of applications. For lubricant injected rotary screw compressors, lubricants may be a hydrocarbon composition or a synthetic product. Typically a mixture of compressed air and injected lubricant exits the air end and is passed to a sump where the lubricant is removed from the compressed air. Directional and speed changes are used to separate most of the liquid. The remaining aerosols in the compressed air then are separated by means of a separator element within the sump, resulting in a few parts per million (ppm) of lubricant carryover in the compressed air. With two stage compressors, interstage cooling and the reduced internal losses due to a lower pressure across each stage increase the compression efficiency. Consequently, less energy is required to compress the air to the final pressure.

The company in the previous example installed a dry fire system requiring 5 cfm of compressed air at all times including weekends. No production occurs during these hours. This air demand requires one 100 HP modulating compressor to run for 2,760 hours extra per year.

Be aware that excessive filter differential often causes higher compressor energy consumption due to short cycling of the compressor.

Compressed air systems consist of a number of major subsystems and components. Compressed air systems can be subpided into the Supply and Demand side.

Generally the finer the filter, the more pressure differential exists across the element. Particulate filters are used to remove solid particles and have the lowest differential.

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Some end use applications require very dry air, such as compressed air distribution systems where pipes are exposed to winter conditions. Drying the air to dew points below ambient conditions is necessary to prevent ice buildup.

A small automobile dealership is considering upgrading their compressed air system. The current system has a 15 HP reciprocating compressor rated at 50 cfm @ 175 psi. The unit is measured at 13 kW average while running. The unit is installed on an 80 gallon receiver.

This handbook is divided into 16 main sections. The overarching theme is to help you to understand, and implement a program to improve the energy efficiency of compressed air systems. The handbook covers a mixture of theory and practice. It also includes some general case examples, glossary and references. The last chapter contains tips for those who want to optimize a compressed air system very quickly.

Compressed Air Filters. Compressed air filters downstream of the air compressor are generally required to remove contaminants, such as particulates, condensate, and lubricant. Numerous choices for filtering exist depending on the cleanliness of the air required.

Experience has shown, time after time, that fixing air leaks is most often the top priority for any compressed air system optimization. Typically you will find that your efforts will have a simple payback of less than 6 months.

To benefit from VSD compressors, the appropriate amount of air receiver storage volume needs to be evaluated for different flow and control scenarios.

Membrane Dryers. These units use a semi-permeable membrane to separate water vapour from the air stream. They have no moving parts. The units use about 20% or the nameplate rating to sweep the membrane. This sweep air is lost to the air system. These dryers exhibit variable dew point output depending on the flow of air and the temperature.

The higher the discharge pressure from the air compressor, the more money and electricity it costs to produce the compressed air. Often times, the air compressor's discharge pressure is set at higher pressures than what would be normally required. A rule of thumb for systems in the 100 psig range is: for every 2 psi increase in discharge pressure, energy consumption will increase by approximately 1 percent at full output flow. This chapter deals with the subject of pressure drops and what you can do to reduce and minimize them.

From time to time you may require help in undertaking a compressed air assessment or to plan a new system expansion. Here's a list of questions to think about in helping you make your decision¹:

The typical APS-C sensor size is different across camera brands. Canon APS-C sensors are usually 22.3×14.9mm, while other brands like Nikon, Sony, Pentax, and more usually feature APS-C sensors with 23.6×15.6mm dimensions. Many cameras including the Canon EOS M50 Mark II, Fujifilm X100V, Sony Alpha a6600, and Nikon Z50 all hold APS-C sensors.

Again, there is no simple yes or no answer to this question. In the last decade or so, CMOS sensors have become a lot more prevalent than CCD sensors. Most consumers cameras and cell phones manufactured today use CMOS sensors. CMOS sensors, in general, use less power, therefore the camera battery will last longer.

Figure 3 illustrates the typical losses associated with producing and distributing compressed air. Assuming 100 HP energy input, approximately 91 HP ends up as losses, and only 9 HP as useful work. In other words, about 90% of the energy to produce and distribute compressed air is typically lost.

Compressed air auxiliary equipment includes compressor aftercoolers, filters, separators, dryers, heat recovery equipment, lubricators, pressure regulators, air receivers, condensate drains, and automatic drains. They are devices associated with the air compressor and help to condition compressed air to the required specifications.

In addition to being a source of wasted energy, leaks can also contribute to other operating losses. There is strong cause and effect relationship between the number and magnitude of air leaks with the overall compressed air system pressure. For example, lower air pressure can affect air tools and equipment by reducing the mechanical output and decreasing the resulting productivity of the process.

Compressed air is used for a diverse set of applications in industry (See Figure 23). The cost to produce compressed air is often unknown to the users, and for this reason, it may be used in an inefficient manner.

Figure 3 - Compressed Air Energy Input and Useful Energy Output Bar chart showing the typical losses associated with producing and distributing compressed air starting with 100 HP energy input. The first bar shows that aproximately 80 HP is lost as heat of compression and compressor losses; the second bar shows that aproximately 3 HP are lost to the dessicant dryer; the third bar shows that aproximately 6 HP are lost to filters and leaks; the fourth bar shows that aproximately 2 HP are lost to pneumatic to mechanical conversion; the fifth bar shows that the useful energy output is 9 HP.

The biggest advantage of screw compressors over small air cooled reciprocating units is that they can run at full load continuously where the reciprocating compressors must be used at 60% duty cycle or below. Rotary screws are also a lot quieter and produce cooler air that is easier to dry. Be aware that rotary screw compressors may not be the most efficient choice compared to start/stop reciprocating compressors. Please refer to Case 3: On/Off vs. Load/No Load Control on page 101 for an example.

The purpose of an eyepiece is to magnify the focal plane of the telescope. All telescopes form what is known as a real image at their focal ...

The table in Figure 4 uses a blended (energy and demand) electricity rate of $0.10 per kWh. Depending on your local electricity tariff rates, you will need to multiply the values in Figure 4 by your inpidual electricity rate (dollars per kWh) and then multiply by 10 to derive your annual electricity costs. Contact your local utility or compressed air service provider for help to determine your own blended electricity rate.

Figure 26 shows the approximate annual cost for electricity ($0.10/kWh) for different size leaks based on one, two and three shift operation.

Approximately 80 percent of the electrical energy going to a compressor is converted into heat. As an energy efficiency option, this heat of compression can be recovered and used to produce hot water or hot air. Compressed air heat recovery provides an excellent opportunity for energy efficiency at many facilities.

It is not uncommon to be able to heat air to 15 to 25°C above the cooling air inlet temperature with 80-90 percent heat recovery efficiency. It is important to realize in using this heat that any heat recovery ventilation duct must not restrict the compressor cooling air flow. Booster fans are usually required if extensive ductwork is installed.

After factoring energy and capital equipment costs, remember that it costs 5-10 times as much to dry the air to -40°C as compared to drying it to +2°C.

Essentially, a sensor is made up of tiny individual photosites. Think of each photosite as a bucket covered by a lid. When an exposure is initiated (press of the shutter button), the lid is uncovered to collect photons of light. When the exposure stops, the lid is placed back on the buckets (photosites). The collected photons are then converted to electrical signal, and the strength of that signal is determined by how many total photons were collected.

Experience has shown that air leaks occur most often at joints and connections. Fixing leaks can be as simple as tightening a connection or replacing root cause faulty equipment including:

Any sensor that is about 1.5 to 1-inch in size or smaller can be found in non-interchangeable lens cameras (your typical point and shoot) and smartphone cameras.

In addition to system operating costs, there are system reliability and performance issues to be concerned with, as well as the quality of the compressed air. These direct and indirect costs can be determined by measuring and baselining your system.

Water separators are devices that remove entrained liquids from the air. They are installed following aftercoolers to remove the condensed moisture. Water separators should not be confused with oil separators which are used within lubricated rotary screw compressors to recover lubricant from the compressed air discharge.

... grating spacing, and 'θ' is the angle of diffraction. The dotted line represents one complete wavelength, λ. Knowing this allows us to map out where our.

On the mirrorless camera side, we have the Micro Thirds Format System, first released in 2008. It shares the Four Thirds System’s sensor size and specifications but uses a compact design with no space for the movable mirror, pentaprism, and other parts of the DSLR mechanisms not found in mirrorless cameras.

Add approximately 25% to the annual compressed air electricity cost to account for maintenance and life cycle capital cost (purchase price) of compressed air system. For example, a 50 HP compressor operating for one shift would cost approximately $8,600 for electricity alone, and approximately an additional $2,150 for maintenance and capital costs, for a total of $10,750.

Facilities having large fluctuations in air demand, or having insufficient air pressure (usually at the end of the line), should evaluate the need for one or more air receivers strategically located in the air distribution system.

The average load at the facility was data logged and it was determined that the average flow is 10 cfm with a peak flow of 50 cfm. The air produced by the compressor is filtered with one particulate filter and one coalescing filter arranged in series, and dried in a 75 cfm direct expansion air dryer with hot gas bypass control consuming 0.88 kW. The pressure drop across the air dryer is 4 psi and the filters pressure differential is 4 psi total. The dryer has a timer drain installed that consumes 2 cfm average. The system operates at an average pressure of 145 psi for 3745 hours per year. Blended power rate is 10 cents per kWh.

Indifference to air leak management can lead to purchasing unnecessary air compressor capacity, thereby increasing capital expenses.

The new screw compressor will be running in load/unload mode with 1.37 US gallons per cfm storage capacity and a 10 psi pressure band. Due to the pressure drop across the filters and air dryer, the compressor will rapid cycle and remain running for the full operating hours. From the load/unload performance curve (see Figure 7) it can be seen the unit will consume an average of 60% of its full load nameplate power.

A good first step in addressing air leakage in a plant is to do a low load test during a non-production time. This might be fairly easy if there is an existing accurate flowmeter already installed in the system or if the air compressors have capacity gauges. If not, a special test can be performed using one or more plant air compressors.

This test can also be done with modulating compressors using an accurate pressure gauge and a stopwatch. This test causes wide pressure fluctuations so it is important to determine if critical equipment will be affected.

Air leaks can be a significant contributor of wasted energy in a compressed air system, and in some instances lead to productivity losses. It is not unusual to encounter 20 to 30 percent of a compressor's output in the form of air leaks at typical industrial facilities. Proactive leak management programs (detection and repair) can reduce leaks to less than 10 percent of a plant's compressed air production.

Compressedaircan

Meanwhile, CCD sensors tend to produce less noise which translates to images appearing sharper. This goes hand in hand with CCD sensors being more sensitive in lower light conditions. Because CMOS sensors are much more available and costs less to manufacture than CCD sensors, cameras with CMOS sensors are usually less expensive.

The location of the primary receiver can have a significant effect on the air dryer. Receivers located downstream of the air dryer can store large quantities of dry air for use in feeding peak demands. If there is a sudden demand in excess of the compressor capacity the stored air can flow directly from the receiver to help maintain adequate pressure. If, on the other hand, the primary receiver is located on the upstream side of the dryer the combined flow from the compressor and the receiver must flow through the dryer. This can cause flows that exceed the dryer capacity. For this reason the largest primary receiver should be located downstream of the dryer and filters.

The Supply side includes compressors, air treatment and primary storage. A properly managed supply side will result in clean, dry, stable air being delivered at the appropriate pressure in a dependable, cost effective manner. Major compressed air supply subsystems typically include the air intake, air compressor (fixed speed and/or variable speed), aftercooler, motor, controls, treatment equipment and accessories.

Many digital cameras are commercially available on the market right now, and they all have a wide range of sensor sizes. And while it’s good to have choices, it can also get pretty confusing, especially to a beginner.

As an additional layer of complexity, each bucket has a filter on it that only lets in red, green, or blue light. In essence, each bucket can only collect 1/3 of the total light trying to enter it. For each bucket, the amount of the other colors is approximated. All this information is then converted to the final image you see on your screen.

Figure 8 illustrates a typical performance curves for compressors where inlet valve modulation is used with and without unloading the compressor.

Piping delivers compressed air from the compressor room to end use equipment and processes. Most compressed air systems use carbon steel piping, which is subject to corrosion. Hence many compressed air systems require an air dryer to control the moisture level. An undersized piping system in the compressor room or distribution line will cause a significant pressure loss between the compressed air production system and the end uses. To be able to maintain a given fixed downstream pressure this pressure differential causes an increase in compressor discharge pressure which increases the compressor energy requirement by about 1% for every 2 psi increase.

This guidebook addresses the typical compressed air systems common to most small and medium manufacturing facilities. It covers common compressed air design and operating problems.

Powered by electricity, a typical air compressor takes approximately 7 volumes of air at atmospheric conditions, and squeezes it into 1 volume at elevated pressure (about 100 psig, [7 bar]). The resulting high pressure air is distributed to equipment or tools where it releases useful energy to the operating tool or equipment as it is expanded back to atmospheric pressure.

Compressed air needs are defined by the air quality, quantity, and level of pressure required by the end uses in your facility. Analyzing needs carefully will ensure that a compressed air system is configured properly. The higher the quality, the more the air costs to produce. Higher quality air usually requires supplementary equipment, which not only increases original capital investment, but also makes the overall system more expensive to operate in terms of energy consumption and maintenance costs.

A primary air receiver acts as general system storage and is usually located close to the main air compressors and can be located upstream and/or downstream of the clean-up equipment.

Hoses may be retrofitted with sturdier crimping clamps and quick connect/disconnect air tight fittings as illustrated in Figure 22.

The Canon EOS R5, for example, is a full-frame mirrorless camera option, and the popular Nikon D850 DSLR has a FX full-frame sensor.

Once the important operating parameters of the complete system are measured, and the operation of the system well understood, the areas requiring attention will come into focus. Supplementary improvement efforts need to focus primarily on the deficiencies identified during the initial assessment, together with ongoing monitoring of air leaks, system pressures, flows, temperatures, air quality, energy consumption and system control set points. The common steps in establishing a compressed air system improvement program include:

After first passing through a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the incoming air to the cooler outgoing stream, the dryer lowers the dew point of the air to the approximate temperature of the air exiting the refrigerant evaporator. This condenses the water vapor which is then removed in the dryer separator. To prevent freezing within the dryer, the evaporator temperature is usually regulated by bypassing the refrigerant past the evaporator using a hot gas bypass valve. This bypass keeps the refrigerant compressor loaded which causes the dryer to consume near full power even when lightly loaded, resulting in poor part load efficiency.

Some industrial compressors are cooled with water. In such cases, the additional sewer and water charges, chilled water system operating costs, pumping costs and chemical treatment need to be evaluated. Figure 4 is a simplified table to provide you with an indication of the electricity costs associated with one, two and three shift operations at a typical industrial facility. The table also shows the approximate electricity cost for 10, 15, 25, 50 and 100 HP-sized air compressors. The table assumes the compressor average loading is 65% of full load.

Several parameters should be measured to determine the baseline performance of your system. The baseline should normally include a load profile. A compressed air load profile indicates how demand for air and compressor energy consumption changes over time. A facility with short periods of heavy demand may benefit from implementing storage options, whereas a facility with a varying load profile will likely benefit from advanced control strategies. An example of a load profile graph appears in Figure 25.

Here's a list of ten things you can do, continue to do, or evaluate in order to kick start your compressed air optimization and energy efficiency program:

Proper coordination is required to maintain adequate system pressures and increased efficiency whenever more than one compressor is required to run in a compressed air system.

Large reciprocating compressors still exist in industry, but they are now no longer commercially available, except for use in specialized processes such as high pressure applications.

Air dryers can consume significant compressed air or electrical power and often have limited turndown capabilities as discussed in "Air Dryers" on page 43. It is possible the existing air dryer could be upgraded or replaced with good savings results. Consider the following points with regard to dryers:

The Demand side includes distribution piping, secondary storage and end use equipment. A properly managed demand side minimizes pressure differentials, reduces wasted air from leakage and drainage and utilizes compressed air for appropriate applications. Distribution piping systems transport compressed air from the air compressor to the end use point where it is required. Compressed air storage receivers on the demand side can also be used to improve system pressure stability.

Recovered heat from the air compressor can potentially be used as an energy efficiency measure for other processes, such as space and water heating.

Once measurements are taken and performance standards established, the data can be analyzed to determine if the system is meeting the facility's needs. The analysis will point to areas of deficiency and identify potential opportunities for improvement.

Repeated starts may cause the motor to overheat and place greater maintenance demands on compressor components. For this reason, care should be taken in sizing storage receivers and maintaining wide working pressure bands to keep motor starts within allowable limits.

Filter Regulator Lubricator. The pressure regulation for air systems can be located at the end use. In many cases the regulator is part of an assembly called a filter, regulator, lubricator (FRL). A lubricator may be situated near a point of end use to lubricate pneumatic tools and other machinery. The lubricator is sometimes combined with a filter and a pressure regulator in the form of a FRL.

Figure 1 – Conversion of Atmospheric Air into Compressed Air Diagram showing 7 cubic units of air being compressed by an air compressor, which requires energy, and producing 1 cubic unit of compressed air at aproximately 7 times atmospheric pressure, plus heat of compression and moisture.

Consideration should be placed to both compressor AND system control selection as they are important factors affecting system performance and energy efficiency.

Figure 6 - Cross Section of a Representative Rotary Screw Compressor cut-away illustration showing rotor timing gears, seals, water jacket, oil-free rotate set, and bearings.

Created by Olympus and Panasonic, the Four Thirds System is a standard that allows for the compatibility of lenses and bodies across participating camera makers. Image sensor size is 17.3×13mm with a crop factor of 2.0 when compared to full-frame camera sensors.

Typically, 50-60 percent of compressor heat can be practically recovered for water heating applications. It is important to realize in using this heat that any heat recovery strategy must not restrict the compressor cooling water flow or overheating could occur.

When the plant is shut down, you can often hear the air leaks. If background noise is present, you will probably need to use an ultrasonic leak detector. Ultrasonic acoustic detectors are handheld devices that recognize the presence of air leaks by their ultrasonic sound patterns. Once a general location of an air leak is determined, soapy water may be applied to suspected areas. The soapy water method is very reliable, however it is time consuming to undertake.

For this reason other methods of power output, such as direct drive electrical motors, should be considered first before using compressed air powered equipment. If compressed air is used for an application, the amount of air used should be the minimum quantity and pressure necessary, and should only be used for the shortest possible duration. Compressed air use should also be constantly monitored and reevaluated.

This guidebook was written to help you to become aware of the costs of compressed air, and to point you in the right direction in helping you to reduce these costs. Energy efficiency best practices and tips are suggested and emphasized.

As a rule of thumb, for load/unload operated lubricated screw compressors, the receiver volume should be 5 to 10 US gallons (20-40 liters) per trim compressor scfm output. Other factors come into play when sizing, such as the type of air compressor method of capacity control and compressor starting delays.

However, a smaller sensor allows added reach (zoom). For example, on a micro 4/3 sensor, which is has a crop factor of two compared to a full frame sensor, a 200mm lens becomes the equivalent of a 400mm lens. Smaller sensors also allow for an overall more compact camera and lens system, which is convenient for travel and long hikes. Finally, smaller sensor cameras are generally less expensive.

Receivers can help compressed air systems operate more efficiently and can help stabilize system pressures as discussed in "Receivers and Air Storage".

Compressedairduster Dollarama

Not all cameras are created equal. An entry-level DSLR won’t give you the same results from a professional, full-frame DSLR—even if they have exactly the same pixel count. If you want to get the highest-quality images with your camera, you’ll need something with extremely powerful specifications and a physically large image sensor.

Compressor controls have a significant impact on energy consumption, especially at lower flows, where start/stop controls are generally the most energy efficient.

If you are like most industrial manufacturing or processing businesses, chances are that you have a compressed air system. Your air compressor system may be located somewhere out of sight and out of mind at your facility. You may not know what it costs to operate and maintain.

The dealership is considering the purchase of a 15 HP screw compressor to replace the ailing reciprocating unit. The compressor salesman indicates a new screw compressor can produce 58 cfm at 150 psi @ 13.5 kW so is therefore more efficient. The plan is to install the compressor on the same 80 gallon receiver, use the same filter and air dryer and operate at 145 psi average pressure.

Dewpoint controls are available that can match the regeneration energy requirement to air system demand. Dewpoint controllers should be used for energy efficiency improvements.

Compressedairmachine

Readers are cautioned to use proper health, safety, and lockout procedures, and to follow equipment operating and maintenance manuals before, during and after any modifications, work or testing related to compressed air systems. Failure to follow proper and safe procedures and codes could result in serious injury, loss of life, property damage, production upsets and other risks.

In general, a properly designed compressed air system should have a pressure loss (or drop) of much less than 10 percent of the compressor's discharge pressure, measured from the point of discharge to the point of end use.

Electric motors are widely used to provide the power to drive compressors. As a prime mover, the motor needs to supply sufficient power to start the compressor, accelerate it to full speed, and keep the unit operating under various design conditions. Most air compressors use standard, three phase induction motors.

Properly managing a compressed air system can not only save electricity, but also decrease downtime, increase productivity, reduce maintenance, and improve product quality.

Over the first ten years of life of a typical air cooled compressor (see Figure 2), with two shift operation, the operating cost (electricity and maintenance) will equal about 88% of the total lifetime cost. The cost of the original equipment and installation will account for the remaining 12%.

This inventory should include recording the nameplate information and setpoints for all of the equipment in the compressed air system including the air compressor(s), aftercoolers, air dryers, receivers, filters, and controllers. A sketch should be made of your compressed air production and distribution system layout noting the pipe sizes, air take off points, and valves. The type and characteristics of machinery or tools along the route of the compressed air system should be recorded.

The compressor control mode can have a big effect on operating costs. In modulating mode the compressor would use 90% of full load power. For load/unload with minimal air storage (1 US Gal per cfm), the compressor would use about 92% of full power. By increasing the air storage to 10 US Gal per cfm, the load/unload compressor will use about 77% of full power. With variable speed drive control, the same size compressor will use about 66% of full power.

It is important to maintain all equipment in the compressed air according to the manufacturers' specifications. This is especially true for the recommended inspection, testing, maintenance, and service schedules specified in operating manuals.

Compressor Cooling. Air compressors that operate continuously generate substantial amounts of heat from the heat of compression. This heat needs to be removed both from the air aftercooler and from the oil cooler. Compressor units are generally cooled with air or water.

As energy accounts for about 76% of the overall lifetime operating cost, it is very important to design and purchase the most efficient components for your compressed air system. It is recommended to make purchase decisions on the overall expected lifetime operating costs, and NOT just on the initial cost of the equipment.

The APS-H is slightly larger than the APS-C sensor format that many Canon DSLR cameras use today but smaller than a traditional full-frame sensor.

Approximately 80 percent of the electrical energy used by an industrial air compressor is converted into heat. For many facilities, a properly designed heat recovery unit can recover 50-90 percent of this available thermal energy to offset space and water heating. For new or expanded compressed air systems, the heat recovery potential should influence the final location of the air compressor within the facility.

Consider a 100 HP compressor operating for 2 shifts with a required discharge pressure of 100 psig. The annual electricity cost of this compressor is $32,330 (see Figure 4). If this unit instead had to operate at 110 psi to overcome a total filter differential of 10 psi, the energy penalty would be approximately 5% or $1,615 per year. In most cases proper design can reduce pressure differential to less than one psi.

A 100 cfm leak rate would cost about 0.2 x 100 x 4,250 x $0.10 = $8,500 per year to maintain at 10 cents per kWh blended rate.

Circle of Confusion – Is an advanced calculator mostly used as part of other calculations. Depth of Field (DoF) – Helps you plan which part of the image ...

Local compressor controls independently balance the compressor output with the system demand and are always included in the compressor package. To achieve the stated goals, systems with multiple compressors require more advanced controls or control strategies (cascaded pressure bands, network or system master controls) to coordinate compressor operation and air delivery to the system.

There’s also the medium-format cameras—the lesser known of the group. These cameras have the largest sensors out of all the available digital cameras for photography, which means they can get pretty expensive.

Most facilities can easily save 10-20% of their compressed air energy costs through routine maintenance such as the fixing of air leaks, lowering air pressure, and replacing clogged filters. Even higher savings numbers can be gained by choosing better compressor control, adding storage receiver capacity, and upgrading air dryers and filters.

*Based on 500 cfm dryer capacity running 4,250 hours per year at 100 psig and 10 cents/kWh. Figure 13 - Operating Costs of Different Dryer Types*

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The Four Thirds System uses a 4:3 image aspect ratio, hence the name, and is featured in cameras like the Blackmagic Design Pocket Cinema Camera 4K. The Micro Four Thirds System uses the same ratio but can also record 16:9, 3:2, and 1:1 formats. It is included in cameras like the Olympus OM-D E-M1 Mark III and Panasonic Lumix G9.

For many applications, other sources of power may be more cost effective and energy efficient. Typically, less than 10% of the original energy used to produce compressed air is actually converted into useful work by the end use application. Think about the equipment at your facility and ask if any of the end uses can be converted to other power sources.

AirDuster

With initial results, you will be in a better position to convince management to invest capital dollars, to invest in more effective and efficient compressors, to update the distribution system, and to commit resources towards ongoing leak management. Remember that compressed air is a system - if you change a component or setting, it will have an impact elsewhere. The trick is to keep on rebalancing the system to continuously improve the system.

Coalescing filters that are used to remove lubricant and moisture usually have the highest differential. Particulate filters are generally used just after a desiccant dryer to remove desiccant fines. A given filter pressure differential increases to the square of the increase in flow though it. This filter differential increases the compressor energy required to produce a fixed downstream pressure.

A first step in the process is gathering equipment data. This can be found by recording nameplate data, service records, operating manuals and purchase orders.

As air systems seldom operate at full load all of the time, the ability to efficiently control flow at part loads is essential.

Figure 5 - Common Air Compressor System Components diagram showing air compressors, aftercoolers, "wet" receiver, air dryer, filter, "dry" receiver, pressure controller, air distribution pipes, and end use equipment.

For the second part of the test, turn on the compressor and measure the time it takes for the pressure to rise though the same two pressure points. Repeat the test a number of times, being careful not to exceed the 4 motor starts per hour. The compressor loaded ratio is determined by taking the rise time and dividing by the total time (rise plus fall). As in the previous example, the leak load is estimated by multiplying this ratio by the compressor cfm output. If a second compressor was required to get to the required pressure its capacity would be added to the total.

The APS-C or crop-sensor format is the most well-known and most versatile of the bunch. The APS-C sensor is popular in DSLR and mirrorless cameras alike. Beginners and professionals alike use it thanks to its adaotability.

Although one of the most expensive forms of plant energy, compressed air is easily accessible, and simple to adapt for use. Consequently it is commonly used for applications where other energy technologies and energy inputs would be more efficient and economical.

Packaged rotary screw compressors are ideal candidates for heat recovery for space heating. Generally, ambient air is heated by passing it across the compressor's aftercooler and lubricant cooler. As packaged compressors are enclosed in cabinets, and generally come equipped with heat exchangers and fans, only ducting and HVAC fans need to be installed to extract heat. The ducting can include a vent that is controlled by a thermostat. The vent could direct heated air to the outside during warmer parts of the year. As an energy efficiency measure, approximately 50,000 BTU per hour of heat can be extracted for each 100 scfm air for a compressor operating at full load.

If a pipe area is doubled, for a given flow, there is generally one quarter the pressure drop for the single diameter pipe - a 75% energy savings.

A camera’s sensor dictates the quality of the images it can produce—the larger the sensor, the higher the image quality. Bigger image sensors have bigger pixels, which means better low-light performance, reduced noise, good dynamic range, and the ability to obtain more information.

Rotary screw compressors have gained popularity and market share (compared to reciprocating compressors) since the 1980s. These units are most commonly used in sizes ranging from about 5 to 900 HP. The most common type of rotary compressor is the helical twin, screw compressor. Two mated rotors mesh together, trapping air, and reducing the volume of the air along the rotors. Depending on the air purity requirements, rotary screw compressors are available as lubricated or dry (oil free) types.

For additional information about energy efficient motors, please refer to the Electric Motors Energy Efficiency Reference Guide published by CEATI.

End use tool pressure differential can be easily diagnosed by simply making up a test gauge setup that is inserted using quick couplers in the air feed near the end use. Comparing the air pressure with or without the end use consuming air will show the pressure differential.

About 1% in higher energy costs results from every 2 psi in filter differential. If a given filter capacity is doubled the pressure loss across it will reduce by a factor of 4, for a 75% savings. From an energy efficiency perspective, air filter types should be chosen carefully as there is an energy penalty for over filtering.

As a rule of thumb, for every horsepower (HP) in the nameplate capacity, the air compressor will produce approximately 4 standard cubic feet per minute (scfm).

These devices (sometimes called intermediate controllers or expanders) are typically located near the air compressor room discharge. They stabilize system pressure with more precision than compressor controls. These units can be pneumatically controlled or have very accurate electronic PID control. Much better air system pressure stability and a more efficient lower average facility pressure can be achieved using these valves.

What is compressedairused for

Caution: Always use appropriate vision and hearing protective equipment, and follow proper safety procedures when detecting air leaks or when working at elevated heights.

Many industrial plants have equipment located at the end of a long air distribution pipe, or machinery requiring large amounts of compressed air for short periods of time. This condition often results in severe localized pressure fluctuations with many essential end points being starved for compressed air. Sometimes this situation can be relieved by correctly sizing and locating a secondary air receiver close to the point of high intermittent demand. If the intermittent demand occurs over a short duration, it may be possible to supply the required air directly from the storage tank rather than running added compressor capacity. By installing a flow restriction before the secondary air receiver, the storage tank can be refilled at a reasonable lower flow rate so as not to affect other local pressure sensitive end uses.

Fittings and couplings for air hoses need to be durable and airtight. Many clamps used for air hoses are purchased for lowest cost, and are subject to poor performance after a given period of time as highlighted in Figure 21.

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The type of compressor control can have a large effect on the results of any leak reduction effort. For example, a leak reduction effort that reduces the air consumption by 10%, in a system with a single modulating compressor, would only achieve about 3% in energy savings because of the limited turndown capability of the modulating compressor control. This same reduction when applied to a system with a VSD compressor would result in energy savings of about 10%.

Dynamic. Dynamic air compressors include centrifugal and axial machines, and are used in very large manufacturing facilities. These units are beyond the scope of this document.

Optimizing peak compressed air performance requires an examination of the relationship and interaction of components acting as a system, plus an independent component evaluation.

Joints, bends and connection points to distribution pipes cause pressure drops. Figure 18 gives and indication of the approximate pressure drop for selected fittings in terms of equivalent length of straight pipe.

Evaluating your compressed air system is the first step in improving its energy efficiency performance. Facilities may undertake compressed air system assessments using in house expertise or, possibly, through a qualified consultant or contractor. The initial evaluation involves a one time concentrated effort supplemented by ongoing focused spot checks. It should take a systems approach - that is an examination of individual components, and how they interact.

With an appropriate heat exchanger, waste heat can be extracted from the lubricant coolers in packaged water cooled, reciprocating or rotary screw compressors. Some manufacturers offer this as optional equipment. This can be used to produce hot water for use in central heating or boiler systems, industrial cleaning processes, plating operations, heat pumps, laundries, or any other application where hot water is required. Heat exchangers also offer an opportunity to produce both hot air and hot water, and allow the operator some ability to vary the hot air/hot water ratio. As many water cooled compressors are large (>100 HP), heat recovery for space heating can be an attractive opportunity.

The best time to find air leaks is when the plant is not operating, usually at night or on weekends. Walk the length or perimeter of the compressed air distribution system. Stop every so often and listen for air leaks. Look for damaged fittings or cracked hoses. Write down and sketch the location of the air leaks. Use tags to mark the location of air leaks for repairs. Repeat the process periodically as part of your maintenance routine.

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Always question if compressed air is the most appropriate power source for an end use application. In many cases, you would be better off to use a direct drive electric tool instead of a compressed air driven one.

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Most often, however, compressor discharge pressure is set artificially high to overcome various system pressure drops between the compressor and critical end uses. Pressure drop is caused by restriction to flow that is internal to system pipe work and components. Too much pressure drop can result in poor system performance and excessive compressor energy consumption.

Remember that once leaks have been repaired, the compressor control system often needs to be adjusted so as to achieve the true energy savings potential.

From an energy efficiency perspective, in many cases, it is wise to maintain equipment more frequently than the recommended intervals. This is especially true for managing air leaks, high pressures, moisture and controls.

Figure 12 - Multiple Compressor Cascading Control; compressor #1 operates with a system pressure (psig) of 100 to 110 psig; compressor #2 operates with a system pressure (psig) of 95 to 105 psig; compressor #1 operates with a system pressure (psig) of 90 to 100 psig; compressor #1 operates with a system pressure (psig) of 85 to 95 psig;

It is intended to provide you with guideposts about your compressed air system, as well as things to think about as you begin or continue to optimize your compressed air system for peak performance.

Once peak and average flows are known and performance levels established it is possible to calculate energy savings numbers based on various alternatives.

Always factor in the lifetime operating cost when designing or purchasing compressed air system parts. Work with your purchasing department to procure the most energy efficient components, even if these cost more initially. Get others involved at your facility. Let them know that compressed air is not free. Have workers report air leaks. Give maintenance sufficient resources to repair air leaks. Make it a team effort.

Compressed air leaving the compressor aftercooler and moisture separator is normally warmer than the ambient air and fully saturated with moisture. As the air cools the moisture will condense in the compressed air lines. Excessive entrained moisture can result in undesired effects like pipe corrosion and contamination at point of end use. For this reason some sort of air dryer is normally required.

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For every 2 psi pressure drop caused by undersized or bottlenecked piping, there is approximately 1% increased energy required.

Replacing a manual drain constantly consuming 5 cfm of air in a two shift (4,250 hours per year) operation would save about $425 per year.

Controls serve to adjust the amount of compressed air being produced to maintain constant system pressure and manage the interaction between system components. Air filters and air dryers remove moisture, oil and contaminants from the compressed air. Compressed air storage (wet and dry receivers) can also be used to improve system efficiency and stability. Accumulated water is manually or automatically discharged through drains. Optional pressure controllers are used to maintain a constant pressure at an end use device.

The presence of adequate storage receiver capacity helps to maintain air quality, air system stability and air system efficiency. Adequate air storage is extremely important in systems using screw compressors.

Figure 15 shows the relationship between pressure drop per 1,000 feet (304 m) of pipe length, in various pipe diameters for a given air flow rate; however, any pressure drop greater than 40 psi is unrealistic in practice.

Regenerative Dryers. These desiccant dryers use a porous material to dry the air. Once the desiccant material becomes saturated, it must be regenerated. Various types of regenerative dryers use different methods of regeneration. These dryers are capable of removing moisture to levels found well below the freezing point of water (e.g. -40°F or °C or below). However, the purge air requirement to regenerate the dryer can impose a major energy penalty to the system.

By ingesting an outdoor air intake supply (as opposed to air from a very warm compressor room), the energy efficiency is improved. When designing outdoor air intakes, pressure differential, freezing, and ice blockage in winter conditions need to be evaluated to maximize energy savings. Moreover, compressor rooms should be as clean and cool as possible to provide the foundation for optimal compressor operation.

Savings of about 1% per psi reduction can be gained due to lower pressure if a significant portion of the load is unregulated. This savings effect is minimal if the majority of the end uses are regulated.

For unregulated air demands, the higher the average pressure the more compressed air used by plant air leaks and end uses. This additional flow is called artificial demand. This demand causes higher compressor energy consumption.

Compressed air is a form of stored energy that is used to operate machinery, equipment, or processes. Compressed air is used in most manufacturing and some service industries, often where it is impractical or hazardous to use electrical energy directly to supply power to tools and equipment.

When selecting new or replacement equipment for your compressed air system, remember to base your decision on the overall expected life cycle operating cost. Avoid purchasing decisions made on initial price alone. Obtain Compressed Air Gas Institute (CAGI) compressor performance specifications to compare the full load performance of one brand versus another. In addition to providing you with unbiased advice, your local utility can often suggest the names of qualified practitioners in your area to help you with your compressed air plans.

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If the plant compressors already operate in load/unload mode (a compressor service provider can assist in determining this) a leak estimate can be made by measuring the loaded and unloaded times while the compressor is feeding the leaks. For example if a 100 HP compressor rated at 400 cfm is loaded for 2 minutes and unloaded for 3 minutes, the leak load can be estimated by taking the loaded time and dividing the total loaded plus unloaded time, or for this example 2/5 = 0.4. This indicates the compressor is loaded 40% of the time. The leak load would then be 40% of 400 cfm or 160 cfm. If another compressor was loaded during this time its capacity would be added to this calculated value. Generally the output capacity of any compressor operating around 100 psi would be about 4 times the compressor nameplate horsepower rating.

We’ve all heard of the full-frame DSLR camera, of course, which is the gear of choice of seasoned professional photographers. For enthusiasts and beginners, the usual choice is the APS-C format or crop-sensor DSLR camera. However, some prefer to use mirrorless cameras or MILCs, which are the smaller, lighter versions of DSLRs. Lastly, there are the 1-inch sensor cameras, which are better known as point-and-shoot or compact digital cameras.

You are probably wondering why you should read or refer to this reference guide. You may find this guidebook to be helpful should one or more of the following situations apply to you.

A rotary vane compressor uses an elliptical slotted rotor situated within a cylinder. The rotor has slots along its length, each slot contains a vane. The vanes are forced outwards by centrifugal force when the compressor is rotating, and the vanes move in and out of the slot because the rotor is eccentric to the casing. The vanes sweep the cylinder, sucking air in on one side and ejecting it on the other. In general, vane compressors are used for smaller applications where floor space is an issue; however, they are not as efficient as rotary screw compressors.

To minimize energy loss from pressure differential and to help stabilize the end of line air pressures, the distribution system should be sized for no more than 2-3 psi pressure differential.

Positive Displacement. In the positive displacement type, a specified quantity of air is trapped in a compression chamber and the volume which it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise in pressure prior to discharge. Rotary screw, vane and reciprocating air compressors are the three most common types of air positive displacement compressors found in small and medium sized industries.

Due to their large image sensors, medium-format cameras are traditionally heavier and bulkier than their full-frame counterparts. But that changed, as brands like Hasselblad have come out with smaller mirrorless medium-format cameras like the X1D II to provide photographers with a lighter, more compact option. The newer Fujifilm GFX 100 is also a medium-format mirrorless camera and holds a whopping 102MP resolution.

Compressor discharge pressure affects the efficiency of an air compressor. In rare cases the compressor discharge pressure will have been inadvertently set too high for no valid reason. In these cases energy can be saved by simply readjusting the compressor control setpoints to a lower level. This should be done carefully and in small steps so as not to affect sensitive plant equipment.

A medium sized furniture manufacturer has two 100 HP screw compressors running in modulating mode feeding a 1,000 cfm desiccant air dryer operating with uncontrolled purge flow. The system runs 6,000 hours a year and is completely turned off on weekends. Problems with end use pressure have been experienced which resulted in a required increase in compressor discharge pressure. Plant personnel attempted to turn off one air compressor to save power but this resulted in low pressure during peak plant flows in the busy daytime production shift. An audit of the facility was done and found the following data:

Depending on the application, excessive moisture in compressed air needs to be managed as it can cause problems with piping (corrosion) and end use equipment.

A good energy management strategy may be to purchase a new more efficient compressor as a replacement for an older existing unit. Often the existing unit can be retired to standby duty, providing backup capacity for increased system reliability. Consider the following when purchasing a compressor:

A clamp using 2 cfm needs a check valve protected storage receiver to maintain at least 85 psi for 2 minutes in a system that normally operates at 100 psi.

In the compression process, and the subsequent cooling of the air to ambient temperatures, heat and moisture, are released as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 2 - Typical Lifetime Ownership Cost of Compressed Air Systems Pie chart showing 76 percent of cost of ownership is for electricity; 12 percent is for maintenance; and 12 percent is for equipment and installation.

Compressed air optimization is an ongoing process. It may seem like a daunting task to get going with your compressed air optimization program.

Improving and maintaining peak compressed air system optimization requires addressing both the supply and demand sides of the system and understanding how the two interact.

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Drains are needed at all separators, filters, dryers and receivers in order to remove the liquid condensate from the compressed air system. Failed drains can allow slugs of moisture to flow downstream that can overload the air dryer and foul end use equipment. Poorly designed or maintained drains tend to waste significant compressed air.

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Inappropriate uses of compressed air are defined as applications that could be powered more efficiently or economically using an energy source other than compressed air.

In most cases a variable speed drive compressors offers the most efficient part load operation. Ideally, when there are multiple air compressors at a facility. One or more fixed speed compressors would supply the base load compressed air, and a VSD compressor would be used to supply the fluctuating or trim load.

The answer to this question isn’t a simple yes or no. It all depends on what’s most important to you. In general, the larger the sensor the better the image quality because it can acquire more light, generates less noise, and can create a shallower depth of field (more background blur) which is preferred my many for portraiture work.

High-end compact cameras like the Panasonic Lumix DMC-LX10 and the Sony Cyber-Shot DSC-RX10 IV use 1-inch sensors. This allows these cameras to produce good results—in terms of image and video quality—that you won’t get with regular point-and-shoot cameras.

In cases where the air compressor's discharge pressure can be reduced, energy savings can be realized. Before lowering compressor discharge pressure, it is important to check with end use equipment specifications to determine the minimum pressure required by air tools and equipment for proper operations.

In many facilities, compressed air systems are the least energy efficient of all equipment. There is a tremendous potential to implement compressed air energy efficiency practices.

Compressed air is not free, but unfortunately it is often treated as such. You should be aware that compressed air is expensive to produce, and is likely consuming a significant slice of your energy dollar.

Compressed air is used for a perse range of commercial and industrial applications. As it is widely employed throughout industry, it is sometimes considered to be the “fourth utility” at many facilities.

It has been common practice in the past to make decisions about compressed air equipment and the end uses based on a first cost notion. Ongoing energy, productivity and maintenance costs need to be considered for optimal systems. In other words, best practice calls for decisions to be based on the life cycle cost of the compressed air system and components.

If the plant can be run on one compressor, test the leak load by turning the compressor off and measuring the time it takes for the pressure to drop from a point 10 psi lower than the normal system pressure to a point 30 psi lower (20 psi drop). The test is done at this lower point to prevent compressor modulation during the test.

The discussion in a previous section titled "Compressor Controls and System Performance" showed that significant power can be saved by running compressors in more efficient operation modes. This should be considered for systems that have existing compressors that are capable of such operation. Local compressor service providers can assist in upgrading or modifying controls for more efficient service.

For new or replacement air compressors, premium high efficiency motor should be specified over a standard ones. The incremental cost of the premium high efficiency motor is usually recovered quickly from the consequential energy savings.

Dry Type Rotary Screw. In the dry type, the intermeshing rotors do not contact one another, and their relative clearances are maintained to very close tolerances by means of external lubricated timing gears. Most designs use two stages of compression with an intercooler and aftercooler. Lubricant free rotary screw compressors have a range from 25 to 1,200 HP or 90 to 5,200 cfm.

To benefit from multiple compressor control, the appropriate amount of air receiver storage volume needs to be installed to slow system pressure changes and allow time to start and stop compressors. Storage is most important for load/unload control but is also required for systems using VSD compressors.

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Secondary receivers (located in the distribution system of a facility or at and end use) have the following general uses:

For oil and particulate filters, use filtration only to the level required by each application. Filter differential should be carefully monitored and filter elements replaced in accordance with manufacturers' specifications or when pressure differential causes excessive energy consumption. Accurate pressure differential gauges should be used to monitor pressure differential.

Optimal performance can be ensured by properly specifying and sizing equipment, operating the system at the lowest possible pressure, shutting down unnecessary equipment, and managing compressor controls and air storage. In addition, the repair of chronic air leaks will further reduce costs.

If you are not sure where to begin, start with the "low hanging fruit". This includes fixing air leaks, lowering system pressures, and optimizing control settings. Once you see results (and electricity savings) with these measures, let others know. Management and fellow employees will want to hear about your success.

Compressor Air Inlet Filter. An air inlet filter protects the compressor from atmospheric airborne particles, insects and plant material.

Different types of compressed air dryers have different operating characteristics and degrees of dew point suppression (dew point is the temperature where moisture condenses in air).

The groundbreaking EOS-1D was the first Canon camera to carry the APS-H sensor type was, and it launched in 2001. Canon released four more cameras (all members of the 1D line) with the same sensor type before discontinuing it.

The typical pressure drop across a compressed air dryer is 3 to 5 psi. Some dryers found in industry are undersized and cause even higher pressure drops. For ongoing energy efficiency, compressed air should be dried only to the dew point required, and with the appropriately sized dryer.

Alternatively, if a single low-flow pressure sensitive end use is being affected by local pressure fluctuations, a properly sized storage receiver with a check valve can be installed that will trap compressed air for exclusive end use. In this way a sensitive device can ride through the occasional pressure fluctuation.

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Inlet filters should be replaced periodically, especially in areas prone to dust and insects. High inlet filter pressure differential reduces the output capacity of an air compressor and decreases its efficiency.

This guidebook addresses typical compressed air systems common to most small and medium manufacturing facilities. It covers common compressed air design and operating problems. It is intended to provide you with guideposts about your compressed air system, as well as things to think about as you begin or continue to optimize your compressed air system for peak performance.

Compressed air is a controllable cost, and this guidebook will help you to identify some common ways to reduce the energy, maintenance and capital costs associated with owning and operating your compressed air system.

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For a typical compressed air end use, like an air motor or diaphragm pump, it takes about 10 units of electrical energy input to the compressor to produce about one unit of actual mechanical output to the work.

In order to minimize pressure drops, where possible, elbow and angle joints should be smooth and gradual. This may not be possible with threaded black iron fittings but often with careful planning the system can be laid out in a way that would minimize direction changes.

Condensate drains are a common point of compressed air loss. Consider airless drains as replacements for timer drains or manual drains that are partially cracked open. The following points should be considered:

To save energy, where possible, minimize the filter pressure drop by using low differential mist eliminator style filters, oversized filters, or by using filters installed in parallel.

Variable speed drive (VSD) compressors should be considered for trim (or swing) duty as they are typically the most efficient unit to supply partial loads. Capable of supplying a constant pressure through a wide control range, the energy consumption and flow of a VSD compressor is almost directly proportional to the speed. This can result in energy savings over comparable fixed speed units when compressors are partially loaded. Be aware, however, that at full loads, the VSD will use slightly more energy compared to a similar sized constant speed motor drive.

Because compressor systems are generally sized to meet a facility’s maximum demand, but are normally running at partial loads, a method of control is required to ensure the running compressors are at their maximum efficiency. A description of some common control methods follows:

Reciprocating compressors have a piston that is driven through a crankshaft and by an electric motor. Reciprocating compressors for general purpose use are commercially obtainable in sizes from less than 1 HP to about 30 HP. Reciprocating compressors are often used to supply air to building control and automation systems.

Quick coupling fittings can be a major point of pressure drop. Often the air must flow through more than one coupling to feed the end use, with each coupling causing up to 7 psi pressure differential at its rated flow. It is not uncommon to see pressure differentials of up to 30 psi across the hoses and couplings. This can be addressed by upsizing connectors and hoses for minimal pressure differential.

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Problematic areas for pressure drop include aftercoolers, filters, water separators, dryers, pipes and check valves. Flow restrictions of any type in a system require higher operating pressures, resulting in higher energy consumption.

This guidebook is general in nature and does not address each and every possible problem and solution that is associated with compressed air systems. It is not a design guide for new or expanded air compressor systems. This guidebook does not, and is not intended to replace equipment manuals, or maintenance procedures.

Generally a receiver of about 110 US gallons (415 l) will store 1 cubic foot of compressed air per psi. Required receiver size for any application is simply the cubic feet required multiplied by 110, and then divided by the pressure range.

A qualified practitioner can assist you in performing the assessment and making system improvement recommendations. Contact your utility for a list of qualified and experienced firms in your area. Many provincial and municipal electric distribution companies offer technical support for these assessments. Financial aid may be available from federal and provincial governments and local utilities to defray part of the cost of doing a system assessment and implementing capital improvements.