Now rapidly roll the model from maximum bank angle in one direction to maximum bank angle in the opposite direction. Do this several times going in each direction and observe the yawing motion of the model. If as the wings pass through level the nose is yawed in the opposite direction to the roll (for example when rolling from left to right bank, the nose points left) then increase the value of KFF_RDDRMIX gain until the yaw goes away. Do not use a value larger than 1.

Although the autopilot will prevent the integrator from increasing if the maximum elevator is exceeded, there is additional protection provided by the PTCH2SRV_IMAX parameter. This parameter sets the maximum amount of elevator(in centi-degrees) that the integrator can control. The default value of 1500 allows the integrator to trim up to 1/3 of the total elevator travel. This should be enough to allow for the trim offset and variation in trim with speed for most models.

Measuring the thickness of the different layers of a person’s retina can help an ophthalmologist diagnose a number of medical conditions, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and glaucoma.

Pitch Yaw rollface

They must then remain still and follow the instructions of the person carrying out the procedure. These instructions will direct the person to look in certain directions throughout the scan.

This method can give a better result, but requires more caution because step 2) can produce a high frequency instability that unless reversion back to manual is done quickly, could overstress the plane.

Verify that the YAW2SRV_SLIP and YAW2SRV_INT gain terms are set to zero, the YAW2SRV_RLL gain term is set to 1.0 and the YAW2SRV_DAMP gain term is set to zero

Check for any steady offset between nav_pitch-roll and pitch. If you have followed the basic method you may see an offset which can be removed by setting PTCH2SRV_I to a small value (say 0.05) which will allow the control loop to slowly trim the elevator demand to remove the steady error. The value of PTCH2SRV_I can be increased in small increments of 0.05 until you are satisfied with the speed at which the control loop ‘re-trims’.

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Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases that damage the optic nerve. Glaucoma can lead to a person experiencing vision loss and blindness.

If the model starts to porpoise, the default PTCH2SRV_P value is too high (this is unlikely but could happen) and you need to switch back to manual immediately and ask your assistant to halve the PTCH2SRV_P parameter before switching back into FBW-A

Without treatment, diabetic retinopathy can lead to blindness. OCT can help a medical professional diagnose diabetic retinopathy.

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Plot the pitch_speed in the tuning window. This shows the rate of pitch in radians/second. A value of 1 radian/second is approximately equal to 60 degrees/second (57 to be more precise), so if for example you had PTCH2SRV_RMAX_DN/UP set to 30, the maximum pitch_speed when responding to a large pitch angle demand (eg full pitch one way to full pitch the other way) should be just above 0.5. A value of greater than 0.6 would indicate that PTCH2SRV_P is too high and should be reduced, whereas a value of less than 0.5 would indicate that RLL2SRV_P should be increased.

If you have an airspeed sensor enabled then blow air towards the front of the pitot tube and watch the HUD. You should see the airspeed reading increase

Pitch yaw rollXYZ

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Although the autopilot will prevent the integrator from increasing if the maximum aileron is exceeded, there is additional protection provided by the RLL2SRV_IMAX parameter. This parameter sets the maximum amount of aileron (in centi-degrees) that the integrator can control. The default value of 1500 allows the integrator to trim up to 1/3 of the total aileron travel. This parameter should not need to be changed unless you are trying to tune the controller to be able to compensate for large roll offsets due to system failures.

This method will give a better result, but requires more caution because step 2 can produce a high frequency instability that can overheat the aileron servo(s) if allowed to continue.

Roll the model rapidly from full bank in each direction and observe the lateral acceleration ay. If the lateral acceleration sits around zero and doesn’t change when you roll into or out of turns then no side-slip control is necessary. You can finish at this point.

The OCT device then uses these measurements to create images of a person’s retina that are cross-sectional and three-dimensional.

The time constant parameter RLL2SRV_TCONST can also be used to adjust how rapidly the bank angle reaches the demanded value. The effect of this parameter will be seen mostly in the response to small step changes in demanded roll. For larger roll demands, the roll rate limit RLL2SRV_RMAX tends to mask its effect. Making this parameter smaller will cause the aircraft to reach its demanded roll angle in less time, but only if the aircraft is capable. A very slow responding airframe may require a slightly larger setting for this parameter.

If a person has received dilating eye drops during OCT, their eye may be sensitive to light for several hours after the procedure.

Pitch roll

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a form of noninvasive imaging test that creates high-resolution, cross-sectional images of the inside of a person’s eye.

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Ideally you will need a second person to do this - one person to fly the plane and one person to adjust the parameters. To follow the manual parts of this procedure you need to be a proficient RC pilot or have someone who is available to help you. Otherwise you will need to start at step 2 on the Initial Assessment and be more cautious with control gain adjustment, increasing them in small steps.

We strongly recommend that you use AUTOTUNE to perform roll/pitch/yaw tuning. The instructions in this article should be used if you are unable to fly.

These instructions will teach you how to tune the roll, pitch and yaw response of your aircraft. This is the first tuning you should do with a new aircraft, as everything else relies on getting this right.

If the model starts to wag its wings, then the default RLL2SRV_P value is too high for your model (this is unlikely but could happen) and you need to switch back to manual immediately and ask your assistant to halve the RLL2SRV_P parameter before switching back into FBW-A

If you get pitch angle oscillation or overshoot, then you need to reduce PTCH2SRV_P. If at this point you still don’t have sufficient response then you need to check your radio calibration, the minimum and maximum pitch angles and potentially follow Method 2.

The macula is a small area in the center of the retina. It plays a role in helping people clearly see the details of objects.

OCT is not the same as a computed tomography (CT) scan. OCT uses light rays to create images, and CT scans use X-ray beams.

OCT can help an ophthalmologist see the different layers of the retina. This helps them map and measure the thickness of these layers.

The rate of pitch (and therefore the reduce the number of g’s) used to correct pitch angle errors can be limited setting the pitch rate limit PTCH2SRV_RMAX_DN and PTCH2SRV_RMAX_UP parameters to non-zero values. Setting these values to 560 divided by the airspeed (in metres/second) gives a limit equivalent to approximately +- 1g.

During the scan, a person may focus on a target within the scanner. They may also see a red line appear during the scan.

Now start to increase the integrator gain RLL2SRV_I in steps of 0.05 from its default value of zero until the bank angle starts to overshoot or oscillate, then halve it.

During a CT scan, a medical professional aims the X-rays at a part of the person’s body and quickly rotates them around the body. The CT scanner processes the signals that these X-rays produce. The CT scanner then creates cross-sectional images.

If you see that the y acceleration is offset or spikes up during turns, then progressively increase the YAW2SRV_SLIP gain in steps of 0.5 until the error goes away or the yaw angle starts to oscillate. If yaw oscillation occurs, then halve the gain from the value at which caused the oscillation.

In some cases, an ophthalmologist may administer dilating eye drops before the procedure. This is to help widen the pupil to make imaging easier.

Prolonged high blood sugar levels can damage the retina. This occurs when diabetes damages the blood vessels that supply the retina with blood.

During OCT, an ophthalmologist uses a beam of light to scan an area of a person’s eye. The OCT device then measures the light that the structures within the eye have reflected back.

Read on to learn more about how OCT works. This article also explains the conditions that OCT can help with and what happens during the procedure.

Once you are happy with the roll response you should now slowly increase the RLL2SRV_I to give the controller some “I gain” to allow it to cope better with wind. A value of 0.05 will work for most models. If you see overshoot or oscillation when raising the I value then halve it.

Vitreous is the substance that fills the middle of the eye. Posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) occurs when the vitreous pulls away from the retina.

The default values for the roll and pitch controllers in Plane are quite deliberately too small for most aircraft. This is because small values will cause ArduPilot to not navigate well and be sluggish, but are less likely to cause the aircraft to crash. The pitch defaults also have a large ‘I’ gain, to try to compensate for poor initial CG location. Once trimmed via SERVO_AUTO_TRIM, this value should be set to 1/5th of the ‘P’ gain and full tuning done, as instructed below.

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Pitch yaw rollaircraft

Central serous retinopathy is a condition that occurs when fluid builds up under the retina. Medical professionals may also refer to this condition as central serous chorioretinopathy.

With the model in FBW-A mode, put in a rapid pitch angle demand, hold it and release. Do the same in the other direction. You want the model to pitch quickly and smoothly to the new pitch angle and back again without overshoot or any porpoising. If the pitch response is too slow, then progressively increase PTCH2SRV_P in increments of 0.1 until you are happy with the response.

If you get bank angle oscillation or overshoot, then you need to reduce RLL2SRV_P. If at this point you still don’t have sufficient response then you need to follow Method 2.

The maximum roll rate can be constrained to make the model bank more smoothly by setting the roll rate limit RLL2SRV_RMAX parameter to a non-zero value. The default value of 60 deg/sec works well for most models. Setting this parameter to 0 turns the rate limiter off and can make the effect of tuning changes easier to see. If this value is reduced too far, then the roll controller is unable to keep up with demands from the navigation controller which leads to overshoot and weaving in the aircraft’s trajectory.

Increase YAW2SRV_DAMP in small increments of 0.05 until the yaw angle starts to oscillate. When this happens, the tail will appear to ‘wag’. Halve the gain from the value that caused the oscillation.

The time constant parameter PTCH2SRV_TCONST can also be used to adjust how rapidly the pitch angle reaches the demanded value. The effect of this parameter will be seen mostly in the response to small step changes in demanded pitch. For larger pitch demands, the pitch rate limits PTCH2SRV_RMAX_DN and PTCH2SRV_RMAX_UP tend to mask its effect. Making this parameter smaller will cause the aircraft to reach its demanded pitch angle in less time, but only if the aircraft is capable. A very slow responding airframe may require a slightly larger setting for this parameter.

Plot the roll_speed in the tuning window. This shows the rate of roll in radians/second. A value of 1 radian/second is approximately equal to 60 degrees/second (57 to be more precise), so if you have RLL2SRV_RMAX set to 60, the maximum roll_speed when responding to a large bank angle demand (eg full bank one way to full bank the other) should be just above 1.0. A value of greater than 1.1 indicates that RLL2SRV_P is too high and should be reduced, whereas a value of less than 1 indicates that RLL2SRV_P should be increased.

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Now roll the model to maximum bank in each direction. The nose should stay fairly level during the turns without significant gain or loss of altitude. Some loss of altitude during sustained turns at constant throttle is expected, because the extra drag of turning slows the model down which will cause a mild descent. If the model gains height during the turns then you need to reduce the PTCH2SRV_RLL by small increments of 0.05 from the default value of 1.0. If the model descends immediately when the model banks (a mild descent later in the turn when the model slows down is normal as explained earlier) then increase the PTCH2SRV_RLL by small increments of 0.01 from the default value of 1.0. If you need to change the PTCH2SRV_RLL parameter outside the range from 0.7 to 1.4 then something is likely wrong with either the earlier tuning of your pitch loop, your airspeed calibration or your autopilot’s bank angle estimate.

Increase PTCH2SRV_D in increments of 0.01 until it it starts to oscillate, then halve it. Do not go above 0.1 for PTCH2SRV_D without checking the temperature of your servos when you land as in extreme cases turning up this gain can cause rapid servo movement and overheat the servos leading to premature failure.

An ophthalmologist may use OCT to help confirm a diagnosis if a person is displaying symptoms of certain eye conditions. Below are the symptoms that may lead an ophthalmologist to use OCT.

In its early stages, diabetic retinopathy usually does not cause symptoms. Some people may notice changes in their vision, such as problems seeing things that are far away.

Now start to increase the integrator gain PTCH2SRV_I in steps of 0.05 from its default value of zero until the pitch angle starts to overshoot or oscillate, then halve it.

Select the tuning box on the bottom of the Mission Planners Flight Data page. You should get a scrolling black window above the map. Double click in the black window and you should get a list of parameters to plot. Change the selection until you have the pitch and nav_pitch plotted. Nav_pitch is the demand and pitch is the response. You can use this to look for overshoot and other behaviour that isn’t so obvious from the ground looking at the model.

This method is the simplest, but won’t give the best result. For those users familiar with tuning the old PID controllers, the RLL2SRV_P, RLL2SRV_I and RLL2SRV_D gains have the same effect, but there are some additional values that can be set by more advanced users.

Pitch yaw rolldrone

Now roll the model into and out of turns in both directions. If the model has a tendency to yaw the nose to the outside of the turn, then increase the YAW2SRV_RLL gain term in increments of 0.05 from its default value of 1.0. Conversely if the model has a tendency to yaw the nose to the inside of the turn on turn entry, then reduce the YAW2SRV_RLL gain term in increments of 0.01 from its default value of 1.0. If you have to go outside the range from 0.7 to 1.4, then there is something else that needs to be sorted and you should check that you have performed step 2) correctly and check your airspeed calibration if airspeed is being used.

Take-off in manual and adjust the trims and throttle to a cruise position so that the plane flies straight and level at a speed that you are comfortable with. This will normally be somewhere between 30 and 60% throttle depending on how overpowered your model is.

Check for any steady offset between nav_roll and roll. If you have followed the basic method you may see an offset which can be removed by setting RLL2SRV_I to a small value (say 0.01) which will allow the control loop to slowly trim the aileron demand to remove the steady error.

With the model level apply left and right roll stick inputs on your transmitter - the controls should deflect in the same direction that they would in manual mode.

OCT can also help medical professionals diagnose optic nerve disorders. This is because an ophthalmologist can use OCT to spot changes to the fibers of the optic nerve.

Set the YAW2SRV_INT gain term to 1.0. If this causes the yaw angle to oscillate then halve the gain from the smallest value that causes oscillation.

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With the model in FBW-A mode, put in a rapid bank angle demand, hold it and release. Do the same in the other direction. You want the model to roll quickly and smoothly to the new bank angle and back again without overshoot or any wing ‘waggle’. If the roll response is too slow, then progressively increase the RLL2SRV_P gain in increments of 0.1 until you are happy with the response or you start to get oscillation in bank angle or overshoot

Pitch yaw rollcar

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PVD can cause a person to develop vitreous traction. This is a condition that occurs when part of the vitreous remains stuck to the macula during PVD. This part of the vitreous then pulls on the macula, causing symptoms of vitreous traction.

The yaw control loop can be configured either as a simple yaw damper (good for models with inadequate fin area) or as a combined yaw damper and side-slip controller. Because control of side-slip uses measured lateral acceleration, it will only work for those models that have enough fuselage side area to produce a measurable lateral acceleration when they side-slip (an extreme example of this is an aerobatic model flying a knife-edge maneuver where all of the lift is produced by the fuselage). Gliders with slender fuselages and flying wings cannot use this feature, but can still benefit from the yaw damper provided they have a yaw control (rudder, differential airbrakes, etc)

Increase RLL2SRV_D in increments of 0.01 until it it starts to oscillate, then halve it. Do not go above 0.1 for RLL2SRV_D without checking the temperature of your servos when you land as in extreme cases turning up this gain can cause rapid servo movement and overheat the servos leading to premature failure.

Select the tuning box on the bottom of the Mission Planners Flight Data page. You should get a scrolling black window above the map. Double click in the black window and you should get a list of parameters to plot. Change the selection until you have the roll and nav_roll plotted. Nav_roll is the demand and roll is the response. You can use this to look for overshoot and other behaviour that isn’t so obvious from the ground looking at the model.

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A medical professional can use OCT to help diagnose AMD. It can be suitable for helping diagnose both early and advanced-stage AMD.

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By allowing an ophthalmologist to do all the above, OCT can help them diagnose certain eye disorders and guide specific treatments.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a type of noninvasive imaging test. Ophthalmologists use OCT to create high-resolution, cross-sectional images of the inside of a person’s eye.

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A person may not experience any symptoms if they have early stage glaucoma. Over time, a person may slowly experience vision loss.

With the plane flying away from you switch to FBW-A. It should continue to fly wings level and at a fairly constant height (it may climb or descend slowly). If it wants to roll or pitch more than a small amount then there is a problem with the model’s trim, autopilot level or radio calibration and you need to solve that first before proceeding further.

OCT can help an ophthalmologist diagnose a number of medical conditions including problems with the macula, AMD, glaucoma, and different types of retinopathy.

With the model in FBW-A mode, put in a rapid bank angle demand by pushing the aileron stick all the way over, hold it for a couple of seconds and then release. Do the same in the other direction. You want the model to roll quickly and smoothly to the new bank angle and back again without overshoot or any wing ‘rocking’. If the roll response is too slow, then progressively increase RLL2SRV_P in increments of 0.1 until you are happy with the response.

Pitch yaw rolldiagram

This method is the simplest and but won’t give the best result. For those users familiar with tuning the old PID controller gains, the K_P, K_I and K_D gains in this controller have the same effect, but there are some additional values that can be set by more advanced users.

With the model level apply up and down pitch stick inputs on your transmitter the controls should deflect in the same direction that they would in manual mode.

Level the model - the control surfaces should be close to neutral. There will be a little bit of displacement, but any more than 10% of your maximum throw indicates that the autopilot has not been leveled or the radio calibration needs to be repeated.

WARNING : If PTCH2SRV_IMAX is set too high, then there is a danger that in FBW-A, if the model has been leveled so that zero pitch is too nose-up to glide at a safe speed, that the integrator will continue to keep increasing the elevator to maintain the demanded pitch angle until the model stalls. PTCH2SRV_IMAX should be set to a value that is big enough to allow from trim changes, but small enough so that it cannot stall the plane. The default for Plane is 2/3 of total throw, which could produce this problem. Be sure that STAB_PITCH_DOWN is setup to add negative pitch at low throttle in stablized modes.

Diabetic retinopathy is a complication of diabetes that causes damage to the blood vessels in the retina. Learn about its causes, symptoms, and…