Notice how objects appear sharper and closer to the camera than in the 90-degree photo above, but some items like the garbage cans and cars in the foreground are no longer visible.

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Because high throughput without stability would be tantamount merely to printing defective semiconductor devices at high speed, we have striven to increase EUV power without compromising dose stability. The objective is to ensure consistent dimensional uniformity of the printed features and, consequently, the performance of the chips. To date, we have experimentally demonstrated 73W of clean EUV power after intermediate focus (IF, the interface source scanner), while maintaining exposure dose stability well within the specifications (3σ≤0.2%). At lower power level, light sources in the field are also maturing and now exhibit high availability in excess of 70% and as high as 95%.

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At this point, the usefulness for security purposes plummets. With a range between 10 and 25 degrees, the field of view on a telephoto camera is just too small, despite the fact that it captures subjects in much greater detail.

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A security camera viewing angle is how much a camera can “see” of the 180 degrees in front of it. It’s closely connected to the size of the lens. The bigger the lens, the smaller the field of view, but the more detail you’ll be able to capture.

Many ideas for EUV sources have been explored over the years.1 The technology now centers on two concepts: laser-produced plasma—LPP (see Figure 1, left)—and laser-enabled-discharge-produced plasma: LDP (see Figure 1, right). Though each of these approaches generates hot, dense plasmas (at temperatures close to 200,000°C) and emits EUV radiation efficiently as a black body (i.e., at all frequencies), how they do it differs greatly.2

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If you’re looking for coverage of a large area like your backyard or parking lot but aren’t overly concerned with the crispness of the image, you can stop here. Just be aware that superwide-angles don’t usually capture enough detail to identify individuals.

Experiment with camera placement. Corners in a room and outside edges of a building where two walls come together are usually your best bet, but your unique situation may demand something different.

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In the case of LPP,3 microscopic droplets (diameter ∼20μm) of molten tin at a temperature in excess of 232°C are fired through a vacuum chamber, individually tracked, vaporized by a pre-pulse laser, and eventually irradiated by a pulsed high-power IR CO2laser at 50–100kHz. When the highly excited electrons relax to lower energy levels, the tin plasma generated radiates EUV photons.

Other articles where distortion is discussed: aberration: Curvature of field and distortion refer to the location of image points with respect to one ...

In summary, the challenges of LPP (e.g., power scaling vs. debris mitigation/mirror lifetime, laser frequency scaling vs. droplet minimum stable distance, stability vs. reflection on secondary droplets, droplet breakdown/expansion/evaporation, droplet tracking and targeting) are still not solved and are primarily challenges of physics. In contrast, the challenges of LDP are those of engineering (spatial tolerances, heat removal, and module lifetime) whose solutions we are already beginning to address.

Camera height and positioning are crucial, too. Finding the right height for your camera—generally, either tabletop or up high, looking down—will allow you to maximize the FOV that you’re working with.

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Are you willing to sacrifice coverage for clarity? Are you willing to sacrifice clarity for coverage? What are your needs?

Too high, and it may be too far away to capture specific details. Too low, and you’ll lose coverage. You’ll have to experiment.

Acknowledging these challenges and tight constraints early on, we abandoned LPP in favor of developing LDP. With LDP,4, 5 the plasma is generated between two rotating discs. The discs are partially immersed in a bath filled with liquid tin, which coats the discs in a thin layer. A pulsed laser beam focused on one of the discs evaporates a small amount of tin and generates a tin cloud between the two discs. Next, a capacitor bank connected to the discs through the liquid tin discharges and converts the tin cloud into a plasma heated to 200,000°C. Pinched by the high current, the plasma emits EUV radiation. This process is repeated several thousand times per second. The resulting heat load is cooled away by the liquid tin, which is kept at constant temperature by an external cooler. Debris is captured by a foil trap, substantially extending the life of the collector mirror.6

Though seemingly simple, the LPP concept is, unfortunately, inherently unstable due to the discrete nature of tin delivery and the challenge of spatially synchronizing and focusing (from some 50m away) the laser beam on the microscopic droplets. CO2 laser instabilities coupled with droplet instabilities further constrain the ability of LPP to consistently achieve a high average energy-conversion efficiency. The primary contributors to short- and long-term laser instabilities are pulse-to-pulse energy variability, timing jitters, beam defocusing due to thermal lensing, and various power loss mechanisms (e.g., beam widening and clipping by apertures when operating at a high duty cycle, gradual coating of laser optics with tin, and filtering of IR radiation from the EUV beam).

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A camera is a camera is a camera, right? Yes. And no. While they all basically function in the same manner, cameras can differ in important but often forgotten ways. Camera A might be perfect for a task that Camera B can’t or shouldn’t do. For example, take the camera field of view (FOV), also known as the viewing angle. You’ve likely seen it listed in degrees as part of a camera’s specs. But what exactly is it?

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To sustain this century's information and communication revolution, optical lithography—the core technology that allows the printing of ever more powerful, smaller, and faster electronics—will have to continue to deliver productivity gains at the pace described by Moore's law. However, the economic viability of next-generation optical lithography (extreme-UV, or EUV) in a high-volume manufacturing environment will require appropriate exposure tools (‘scanners’) to achieve high-throughput and high-yield operation. Consequently, EUV light sources must be able not only to generate and deliver powerful, stable, and ‘clean’ EUV photons at 13.5nm (see Table 1) but also to do so consistently and reliably.

A super-telephoto FOV is used primarily by journalists and photographers that want stunning detail captured from a great distance. Think wildlife photographer shooting a pride of lions on the savannah or the paparazzi trying to sneak a picture of a celebrity vacationing on a private island.

A telephoto field of view is great for zooming in on a particular subject and capturing crisp details, but it’s nearly worthless for monitoring a room or outdoor space.

With a range typically between 60 and 110 degrees (or more), a wide-angle FOV sacrifices some coverage for better detail. It’s ideal for security cameras in that sense.

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Droplet variability stems from difficulty in consistently generating identical droplets at a high rate, instabilities in droplet position, velocity, and spacing, interactions of the plasma and shock waves with other droplets, collisions between droplets, and missing droplets. Moreover, the high level of debris produced at high power severely limits collector mirror lifetime. The indirect energy-conversion scheme of LPP (electrical → laser light → EUV) also makes this approach inefficient. As LPP scales in power, an unacceptable strain (∼1MW per source) on the electrical power supply of the fabrication facility would severely limit the economic viability of the technology. Finally, LPP costs increase linearly with the number of amplification stages required by the architecture.

A camera’s field of view is not an independent variable. The size of the lens, the physical distance between the camera and the subject, mounting height, and placement all affect it. Your job—or the job of the security personnel you hire—is to consider them all.

As the name implies, this is the field of view for most cameras. It has a viewing angle of 25 to 60 degrees. You’ll only capture one-third of the scene at most, but with much greater detail and clarity, as objects and people appear closer to the camera. As far as security goes, a standard angle can be quite effective in a small room or if you’re only interested in capturing a specific section of the overall scene.

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What does the word MTF mean? There are two meanings listed in OED's entry for the word MTF. See 'Meaning & use' for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence.

XTREME technologies GmbH would like to express its appreciation to the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization of Japan and the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Germany, for their support.

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That may sound ideal for security purposes, but there’s a catch. A superwide-angle camera warps the image and creates a fisheye effect like you see when looking through a peephole. They can be useful when you want to capture as much of the scene as possible, but it comes at the expense of some detail and clarity.

A wide-angle camera checks the most boxes: field of view up to 110 degrees—sometimes even more—without the distortion that comes with a superwide-angle. And while it shows less detail than a standard or telephoto viewing angle, you can make up for some of that with a higher resolution—the number of pixels per inch—and quality components. A high-definition camera with a resolution of 1080p, 2K, or 4K can boost image clarity without having to sacrifice too much from the field of view.

By experimenting with security camera placement, you can usually reduce or eliminate the blind spots created by the reduced field of view. For example, a camera mounted high in the corner of a room will capture most, if not all, of the scene, but one mounted in the middle of a wall will have blind spots on both sides of it.

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To achieve higher EUV output power (250W of stable EUV clean power after IF), the pulse energy and repetition rate—i.e., the frequency of the source operation—and the intrinsic conversion efficiency (electrical → EUV) must be increased.7

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Sometimes you’ll want a wide field of view, and sometimes you’ll want a narrow one. But it’s vital that you pick the correct one for the job.

To see that in action, grab your smartphone, open the camera, and point it at whatever is in front of you. The camera “sees” part of the scene, but not the whole thing. Next, zoom in on something. You’ll be able to recognize greater detail, but you’ll have even less of the scene on your screen. The viewing angle has shrunk.

A superwide-angle (aka ultra-wide) FOV captures the full 180 degrees in front of it. Some of them can even see the entire 360 degrees around them.

But at only 1 to 10 degrees in coverage, a would-be thief would literally have to stop on a marked spot far away and smile for it to be of any use in security. You’d have to hope burglars happened to walk through the very narrow field of view by sheer luck.

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