Firat, Rengin B. and Pascal Boyer. 2015. “Coalitional Affiliation as a Missing Link Between Ethnic Polarization and Well-being: An Empirical Test from the European Social Survey.” Social Science Research, Vol. 53, pg. 148-161.

Hameleers, M., & van der Meer, G. L. A. (2020). Misinformation and polarization in a high-choice media environment: How effective are political fact-checkers? Communication Research, 47, 227-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218819671

Political polarization can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes. Almost all discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In most two-party systems, political polarization embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities.

Polarization definitionpolitics

Schmuck, D., Heiss, R., & Matthes, J. (2020). Drifting further apart? How exposure to media portrayals of Muslims affects attitude polarization. Political Psychology.

Murat Somer and Jennifer McCoy, “Introduction: Déjà vu? Polarization and Endangered Democracies in the 21st Century” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1, (January 2018): 3-15.

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Press-party parallelism and polarization of news media during an election campaign: The case of the 2011 Turkish elections — A Çarkoğlu, L Baruh, K Yıldırım, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 2014, 19 (3), 295-317.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. Grand Old Tea Party: Partisan Polarization and the Rise of the Tea Party Movement. In Lawrence Rosenthal and Christine Trost, eds., Steep: The Precipitous Rise of the Tea Party. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Polarization definitionin Chemistry

The function of the objective lenses is to magnify the specimen & to produce a magnified real inage. Tap the card to flip.

Federico Vegetti, Zoltán Fazekas and Zsombor Méder. “Sorting your way out: perceived party posi- tions, political knowledge, and polarization.” 2017 Acta Politica, 52(4), 479–501.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. Partisan Nation: The Rise of Affective Polarization in the American Electorate. In John Green, Daniel Coffey and David Cohen, eds., The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties, 7th edition. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

Polarization definitiongeography

Jul 16, 2020 — Curious to see how it would look like if Zero formed a bond with Iris but this time would be different from their X counterparts.

Palonen says that in polarization there is no middle ground. One has to choose sides. The political opponent is turned into an enemy, with an illegitimate and threatening position. Polarization also requires consensus on both sides of the main frontier, there is little space for diversity. Political polarization produces strong leaders due to the lack of contestation from within the party or coalition. They in turn secure their position by strengthening the polarization. This has been the main rhetorical strategy of Viktor Orban, a key populist politician in post-Communist Hungary, the leader of the Fidesz party.

Gulbrandsen, Trygve Jens & Hoffmann-Lange, Ursula (2007). Consensus or polarization? Business and Labour Elites in Germany and Norway, In Fredrik Engelstad & Trygve Jens Gulbrandsen (ed.), Comparative Studies of Social and Political Elites. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7623-1379-2.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2014. Long-Term Trends and Short-Term Forecasts: The Transformation of U.S. Presidential Elections in an Age of Polarization. PS: Political Science and Politics: 47, April: 289-292.

Alban Lauka, Jennifer McCoy and Rengin B. Firat. “Mass Partisan Polarization: Measuring a Relational Concept” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1 (January 2018): 107-126.

Manuel Anselmi, Populism, social polarization and hybrid regimes: the case of Venezuela. In: Flaminia Saccà. Globalization and Socio-political New trends. (2016) p. 89-103, ROMA: Eurilink Edizioni Srl, ISBN:978-88-97931-81-2

Polarization definitionbiology

Alan Abramowitz and Jennifer McCoy, “United States: Racial Resentment, Negative Partisanship and Polarization in Trump’s America,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681:1(January 2019): 137-156.

Political polarization, according to an article by Emilia Palonen, is a political tool — articulated to demarcate frontiers between ‘us’ and ‘them’ and to stake out communities perceived as moral orders. Palonen writes that “polarization is a situation in which two groups create each other through demarcation of the frontier between them. The dominant political frontier creates a point of identification and confrontation in the political system, where consensus is found only within the political camps themselves.”

Wojcieszak, M. (2015). Political Polarization. In G. Mazzoleni (Ed.) International Encyclopedia of Political Communication. ICA Wiley-Blackwell International Encyclopedia. London: Wiley-Blackwell.

Webster, Steven W., and Alan I. Abramowitz. 2017. The Ideological Foundations of Affective Polarization in the U.S. Electorate. American Politics Research 45: 621- 647.

Polarization definitionpsychology

Handlin says highly polarizing party systems in South America emerged through a mechanism of ‘polarizing populism,’ distinguished by two characteristics: i) Populist figures and movements emerged to challenge for, and often win, executive power. ii) These populist figures not only politicized a pro-systemic/anti-systemic dimension of politics, but they also advanced radical programmatic agendas greatly at odds with those of status quo opponents.

Where populist citizens get the news: An investigation of news audience polarization along populist attitudes in 11 countries — A Schulz; Communication Monographs, 2019, 86 (1), 88-111.

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Tucker, J., Guess, A., Barberá, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich, S., Stukal, D. & Nyhan, B. “Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature”, Report prepared for the Hewle Foundation, 2018.

Polarization is reproduced in all political and social contexts with an intensity that distinguishes it from mere two-party politics, according to Palonen who says “It is a totalizing system, as it aims to dominate the existing systems of differences and identities. Similar logic can be found in other polarized contexts, such as those in the USA or Italy. The situation constitutes a problem for democracy insofar as democracy is seen as the articulation, combination and promotion of political values, demands and preferences that direct policies and seek to find a ground beyond the political elites, not mere regular elections.”

Castanho Silva, Bruno. (2017). Populist radical right parties and mass polarization in the Netherlands. European Political Science Review. 10. 1-26. 10.1017/S1755773917000066.

According to an article by Samuel Handlin, extremely polarized politics in countries such as Bolivia, Ecuador and Venezuela emerged through a mechanism termed polarizing populism, in which political outsiders leveraged popular anti-systemic appeals to underwrite otherwise risky and highly controversial policy programs. The occurrence (or not) of polarizing populism in South America, in turn, can be explained by the conjunction of state crises before the left turn period and the strength of the extant infrastructure of left-wing political mobilization each country possessed as the post–Cold War era began, which shaped incentives for outsiders to build ideologically narrow or broad elite coalitions.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2011. U.S. Senate Elections in an Age of Polarization. In Burdett Loomis, ed., The U.S. Senate: From Delay to Dysfunction, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.

Polarization definitionin communication

Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Winter, Stephan & Yu, Xudong. (2020). Social Norms and Selectivity: Effects of Norms of Open-Mindedness on Content Selection and Affective Polarization. Mass Communication and Society. 10.1080/15205436.2020.1714663.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2010. The Disappearing Center: Engaged Citizens, Polarization and American Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.

“Alternatively, one of the main parties is seen as a populist. In Hungary there are two,” reminds Palonen and adds that “Populism is a hegemonic formation. They profess black-and-white rhetoric on the people and the elite, the tendential empty stances on values and policies and a stark confrontation with the political adversary. Post-Communist politics in Hungary are politics of a bipolar hegemony and competing populism. A ‘hegemonic formation’ fixes a maximum amount of meanings together or blocks them out of it. In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry meanings for the two poles. The two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus.”

Abramowitz, Alan I. and Walter J. Stone. 2006. The Bush Effect: Polarization, Turnout, and Activism in the 2004 Presidential Election. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36: 141-154.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2013. Voting in a Time of Polarization: Why Barack Obama Won the 2012 Presidential Election and What It Means. In Larry J. Sabato, ed., Barack Obama and the New America: The 2012 Election and the Changing Face of Politics. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

Press-party parallelism and polarization of news media during an election campaign: The case of the 2011 Turkish elections — A Çarkoğlu, L Baruh, K Yıldırım, The International Journal of Press/Politics, 2014, 19 (3), 295-317.

Meanwhile, a central claim of Hadlin’s article is that polarizing populism is enabled by state crises. State crises refer to situations characterized by two necessary elements: i) States perform poorly: Basic institutions such as the public administration, the judiciary, and the police prove inefficient and highly corrupt in their conduct and provision of goods and services. ii) Citizens come to possess very little confidence in these basic state institutions and government in general.  However, polarizing populism required not just state crisis but also contextual conditions that induced outsiders to build elite coalitions on the left. The proesses by which populist outsiders build movements, especially the coalitions and alliances they forge, therefore become critical in determining whether populists will adopt pragmatic or polarizing positions, and therefore whether or not they will transform party systems in highly polarizing directions.

P. Barberá, C. Vaccari, A. Valeriani (2017). ‘Social Media, Personalization of News Reporting, and Media Systems’ Polarization in Europe’. In M. Barisione, A. Michailidou (Eds), Social Media and European Politics: Rethinking Power and Legitimacy in the Digital Era. London: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN: 978-1-137-59889-9, pp. 25-52.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2017. It Wasn’t the Economy, Stupid: Racial Polarization, White Racial Resentment, and the Rise of Trump. In Larry Sabato, Kyle Kondik and Geoff Skelley, eds., Trumped: The 2016 Election that Broke All the Rules. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

Polarization definitionin Physics

J. Tucker, A. Guess, P. Barbera, C. Vaccari, A. Siegel, S. Sanovich, D. Stukal, B. Nyhan (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature, commissioned by the Hewlett Foundation.

In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry different meanings for the two poles. According to Palonen, the two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus. “Usually, but not exclusively, populism is attributed to small radical parties, which often rally on nationhood and anti-elitism, and are very successful in using media in order to put their message through,” says Palonen.

Mass polarization or popular polarization occurs when an electorate’s attitudes towards political issues, policies, and celebrated figures are neatly divided along party lines. At the extreme, each camp questions the moral legitimacy of the other, viewing the opposing camp and its policies as an existential threat to their way of life or the nation as a whole. Many political scientists consider political polarization a top-down process, in which elite polarization leads to — or at least precedes — popular polarization.

Abramowitz, Alan I. I. 2010. Transformation and Polarization: The 2008 Presidential Election and the New American Electorate. Electoral Studies, 29: 594-603.

Dynamics of Polarization in the Greek Case — Andreadis, Ioannis; Stavrakakis, Yannis; Mccoy, Jennifer (Editor); Somer, Murat (Editor); The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January 2019, Vol.681(1), pp.157-172.

Polarization and partisanship: Key drivers of distrust in media old and new? — J Suiter, R Fletcher; European Journal of Communication, 0267323120903685

Barberá, P. “Social Media, Echo Chambers, and Political Polarization”, forthcoming. Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, edited by Nate Persily and Joshua Tucker. Cambridge University Press.

Polarization definitionsynonym

Political elites and immigration in Italy: party competition, polarization and new cleavages — D Di Mauro, L Verzichelli, Contemporary Italian Politics, 2019, 1-14.

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Abramowitz, Alan I. 2007. Don’t Blame Primary Voters for Polarization. The Forum: A Journal of Applied Research in Contemporary Politics, Issue 4, Article 4.

A microscope condenser is located above the light source and under the sample in an upright microscope. It is used to collect light and focus it on to the ...

On the other hand, a World Bank report shows that many countries in Europe and Central Asia (ECA) are witnessing significant political polarization. Increasing numbers of voters appear to be moving away from centrist positions, abandoning long-held political commitments, and losing faith in established parties and to some extent institutions… Many issues — including economic difficulties, ethnic rivalries, the refugee crisis, and geopolitical tensions — may be driving political polarization in ECA. The importance of each varies by country. There does appear to have been some shift across ECA away from traditional, more centrist political parties, as well as toward more populist political opinions, since the beginning of this century.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. American Political Parties in an Age of Polarization. In Mark D. Brewer and L. Sandy Maisel, eds., The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns, 5th edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Abramowitz, Alan I., and Kyle L. Saunders. 1997. Party Polarization and Ideological Realignment in the U.S. Electorate, 1976-1994. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond, 3rd edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

Tucker, Joshua & Guess, Andrew & Barbera, Pablo & Vaccari, Cristian & Siegel, Alexandra & Sanovich, Sergey & Stukal, Denis & Nyhan, Brendan. (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature. SSRN Electronic Journal. 10.2139/ssrn.3144139.

The TECHSPEC® Liquid Lens Cx Series Fixed Focal Length Lenses from Edmund Optics combine a high resolution optical design with the fast electronic focus of ...

Yang, J., Rojas, H., Wojcieszak, M., et al. (2016). Why are “others” so polarized? Perceived political polarization and media use in 10 countries. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 21(5), 349- 367.

“The Logic of Polarizing Populism: State Crises and Polarization in South America,” Samuel Handlin, American Behavioral Scientist, 2018. Special issue on Polarization and Democracy.

“Populist polarization and the slow death of democracy in Ecuador”, Carlos de la Torre, Andrés Ortiz,. Democratization, 23 (2) 2016, 221-241, DOI:10.1080/13510347.2015.1058784

Yang, JungHwan & Rojas, Hernando & Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Aalberg, Toril & Coen, Sharon & James, Curran & Hayashi, Kaori & Iyengar, Shanto & Jones, Paul & Mazzoleni, Gianpietro & Papathanassopoulos, Stylianos & Rhee, June & Rowe, David & Soroka, Stuart & Tiffen, Rodney. (2016). Why Are “Others” So Polarized? Perceived Political Polarization and Media Use in 10 Countries. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 10.1111/jcc4.12166.

Jennifer McCoy, Tahmina Rahman, and Murat Somer. “Polarization and the Global Crisis of Democracy: Common Patterns, Dynamics and Pernicious Consequences for Democratic Polities” in Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1 (January 2018): 16-42.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. How Race and Religion Have Polarized American Voters. In Daniel J. Hopkins and John Sides, eds., Political Polarization in American Politics. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.

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Stone, Walter J., Ronald B. Rapoport and Alan I. Abramowitz. 1990. The Reagan Revolution and Party Polarization in the 1980s. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond: Changes in the American Party System. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

Jennifer McCoy and Murat Somer, “Toward a Theory of Pernicious Polarization and How it Harms Democracy: Comparative Evidence and Possible Remedies,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681, no. 1 (January 2019): 234-271.

Somer, Murat, and Jennifer McCoy. “Transformations through Polarizations and Global Threats to Democracy.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 681, no. 1 (January, 2019): 8–22.

Wojcieszak, Magdalena & Garrett, R. Kelly. (2018). Social Identity, Selective Exposure, and Affective Polarization: How Priming National Identity Shapes Attitudes Toward Immigrants Via News Selection. Human Communication Research. 44. 10.1093/hcr/hqx010.

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. The New American Electorate: Partisan, Sorted and Polarized. In James Thurber, ed., American Gridlock: The Sources, Character and Impact of Political Polarization. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Samuel Handlin, State Crisis in Fragile Democracies: Polarization and Political Regimes in South America. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

« Back to Glossary IndexPolitical Polarization Political polarization can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes. Almost all discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. In most two-party systems, political polarization embodies the tension of its binary political ideologies and partisan identities. Mass polarization or popular polarization occurs when an electorate’s attitudes towards political issues, policies, and celebrated figures are neatly divided along party lines. At the extreme, each camp questions the moral legitimacy of the other, viewing the opposing camp and its policies as an existential threat to their way of life or the nation as a whole. Many political scientists consider political polarization a top-down process, in which elite polarization leads to — or at least precedes — popular polarization. Political polarization, according to an article by Emilia Palonen, is a political tool — articulated to demarcate frontiers between ‘us’ and ‘them’ and to stake out communities perceived as moral orders. Palonen writes that “polarization is a situation in which two groups create each other through demarcation of the frontier between them. The dominant political frontier creates a point of identification and confrontation in the political system, where consensus is found only within the political camps themselves.” Polarization is reproduced in all political and social contexts with an intensity that distinguishes it from mere two-party politics, according to Palonen who says “It is a totalizing system, as it aims to dominate the existing systems of differences and identities. Similar logic can be found in other polarized contexts, such as those in the USA or Italy. The situation constitutes a problem for democracy insofar as democracy is seen as the articulation, combination and promotion of political values, demands and preferences that direct policies and seek to find a ground beyond the political elites, not mere regular elections.” Palonen says that in polarization there is no middle ground. One has to choose sides. The political opponent is turned into an enemy, with an illegitimate and threatening position. Polarization also requires consensus on both sides of the main frontier, there is little space for diversity. Political polarization produces strong leaders due to the lack of contestation from within the party or coalition. They in turn secure their position by strengthening the polarization. This has been the main rhetorical strategy of Viktor Orban, a key populist politician in post-Communist Hungary, the leader of the Fidesz party. In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry different meanings for the two poles. According to Palonen, the two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus. “Usually, but not exclusively, populism is attributed to small radical parties, which often rally on nationhood and anti-elitism, and are very successful in using media in order to put their message through,” says Palonen. “Alternatively, one of the main parties is seen as a populist. In Hungary there are two,” reminds Palonen and adds that “Populism is a hegemonic formation. They profess black-and-white rhetoric on the people and the elite, the tendential empty stances on values and policies and a stark confrontation with the political adversary. Post-Communist politics in Hungary are politics of a bipolar hegemony and competing populism. A ‘hegemonic formation’ fixes a maximum amount of meanings together or blocks them out of it. In the political rhetoric identities, symbols and history carry meanings for the two poles. The two camps of the bipolar hegemony sustain themselves through their opposition to one another rather than through their content. Polarization can be seen as a system of dual consensus, reproducing the typical problems of consensus.” According to Palonen, polarization solves the initial problem of fragmentation, lack of unity, by instituting a frontier that sustains two communities as a bipolar hegemony. It requires constant rearticulation and, therefore, constant antagonism on that frontier… “Similar to the one-party system or consensus, polarization and bipolar hegemony bracket out less important demands and maintain an illusion of unity, rejecting anything that might shake internal cohesion,” she underlines.  On the other hand, a World Bank report shows that many countries in Europe and Central Asia (ECA) are witnessing significant political polarization. Increasing numbers of voters appear to be moving away from centrist positions, abandoning long-held political commitments, and losing faith in established parties and to some extent institutions… Many issues — including economic difficulties, ethnic rivalries, the refugee crisis, and geopolitical tensions — may be driving political polarization in ECA. The importance of each varies by country. There does appear to have been some shift across ECA away from traditional, more centrist political parties, as well as toward more populist political opinions, since the beginning of this century. According to an article by Samuel Handlin, extremely polarized politics in countries such as Bolivia, Ecuador and Venezuela emerged through a mechanism termed polarizing populism, in which political outsiders leveraged popular anti-systemic appeals to underwrite otherwise risky and highly controversial policy programs. The occurrence (or not) of polarizing populism in South America, in turn, can be explained by the conjunction of state crises before the left turn period and the strength of the extant infrastructure of left-wing political mobilization each country possessed as the post–Cold War era began, which shaped incentives for outsiders to build ideologically narrow or broad elite coalitions. Handlin says highly polarizing party systems in South America emerged through a mechanism of ‘polarizing populism,’ distinguished by two characteristics: i) Populist figures and movements emerged to challenge for, and often win, executive power. ii) These populist figures not only politicized a pro-systemic/anti-systemic dimension of politics, but they also advanced radical programmatic agendas greatly at odds with those of status quo opponents. Meanwhile, a central claim of Hadlin’s article is that polarizing populism is enabled by state crises. State crises refer to situations characterized by two necessary elements: i) States perform poorly: Basic institutions such as the public administration, the judiciary, and the police prove inefficient and highly corrupt in their conduct and provision of goods and services. ii) Citizens come to possess very little confidence in these basic state institutions and government in general.  However, polarizing populism required not just state crisis but also contextual conditions that induced outsiders to build elite coalitions on the left. The proesses by which populist outsiders build movements, especially the coalitions and alliances they forge, therefore become critical in determining whether populists will adopt pragmatic or polarizing positions, and therefore whether or not they will transform party systems in highly polarizing directions. Read More Jennifer McCoy & Murat Somer, Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1, January 2018. Webster, Steven W., and Alan I. Abramowitz. 2017. The Ideological Foundations of Affective Polarization in the U.S. Electorate. American Politics Research 45: 621- 647. Alan Abramowitz and Jennifer McCoy, “United States: Racial Resentment, Negative Partisanship and Polarization in Trump’s America,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681:1(January 2019): 137-156.  Abramowitz, Alan I. 2010. The Disappearing Center: Engaged Citizens, Polarization and American Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press. Jennifer McCoy and Murat Somer, “Toward a Theory of Pernicious Polarization and How it Harms Democracy: Comparative Evidence and Possible Remedies,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 681, no. 1 (January 2019): 234-271. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2014. Long-Term Trends and Short-Term Forecasts: The Transformation of U.S. Presidential Elections in an Age of Polarization. PS: Political Science and Politics: 47, April: 289-292. Abramowitz, Alan I. I. 2010. Transformation and Polarization: The 2008 Presidential Election and the New American Electorate. Electoral Studies, 29: 594-603. Abramowitz, Alan I., and Kyle L. Saunders. 2008. Is Polarization a Myth? Journal of Politics, 70: 542-555. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2007. Don’t Blame Primary Voters for Polarization. The Forum: A Journal of Applied Research in Contemporary Politics, Issue 4, Article 4. Abramowitz, Alan I. and Walter J. Stone. 2006. The Bush Effect: Polarization, Turnout, and Activism in the 2004 Presidential Election. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36: 141-154. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2017. It Wasn’t the Economy, Stupid: Racial Polarization, White Racial Resentment, and the Rise of Trump. In Larry Sabato, Kyle Kondik and Geoff Skelley, eds., Trumped: The 2016 Election that Broke All the Rules. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. The New American Electorate: Partisan, Sorted and Polarized. In James Thurber, ed., American Gridlock: The Sources, Character and Impact of Political Polarization. New York: Cambridge University Press. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. How Race and Religion Have Polarized American Voters. In Daniel J. Hopkins and John Sides, eds., Political Polarization in American Politics. New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2015. Partisan Nation: The Rise of Affective Polarization in the American Electorate. In John Green, Daniel Coffey and David Cohen, eds., The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties, 7th edition. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2013. Voting in a Time of Polarization: Why Barack Obama Won the 2012 Presidential Election and What It Means. In Larry J. Sabato, ed., Barack Obama and the New America: The 2012 Election and the Changing Face of Politics. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. Grand Old Tea Party: Partisan Polarization and the Rise of the Tea Party Movement. In Lawrence Rosenthal and Christine Trost, eds., Steep: The Precipitous Rise of the Tea Party. Berkeley: University of California Press. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. American Political Parties in an Age of Polarization. In Mark D. Brewer and L. Sandy Maisel, eds., The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns, 5th edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2011. U.S. Senate Elections in an Age of Polarization. In Burdett Loomis, ed., The U.S. Senate: From Delay to Dysfunction, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press. Abramowitz, Alan I., and Kyle L. Saunders. 1997. Party Polarization and Ideological Realignment in the U.S. Electorate, 1976-1994. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond, 3rd edition. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Stone, Walter J., Ronald B. Rapoport and Alan I. Abramowitz. 1990. The Reagan Revolution and Party Polarization in the 1980s. In L. Sandy Maisel, ed., The Parties Respond: Changes in the American Party System. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Manuel Anselmi, Populism, social polarization and hybrid regimes: the case of Venezuela. In: Flaminia Saccà. Globalization and Socio-political New trends. (2016) p. 89-103, ROMA: Eurilink Edizioni Srl, ISBN:978-88-97931-81-2 Barberá, P. “Social Media, Echo Chambers, and Political Polarization”, forthcoming. Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, edited by Nate Persily and Joshua Tucker. Cambridge University Press. Tucker, J., Guess, A., Barberá, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich, S., Stukal, D. & Nyhan, B. “Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature”, Report prepared for the Hewle Foundation, 2018. Castanho Silva, Bruno. (2017). Populist radical right parties and mass polarization in the Netherlands. European Political Science Review. 10. 1-26. 10.1017/S1755773917000066. Polarization and partisanship: Key drivers of distrust in media old and new? — J Suiter, R Fletcher; European Journal of Communication, 0267323120903685 “Populist polarization and the slow death of democracy in Ecuador”, Carlos de la Torre, Andrés Ortiz,. Democratization, 23 (2) 2016, 221-241, DOI:10.1080/13510347.2015.1058784 Firat, Rengin B. and Pascal Boyer. 2015. “Coalitional Affiliation as a Missing Link Between Ethnic Polarization and Well-being: An Empirical Test from the European Social Survey.” Social Science Research, Vol. 53, pg. 148-161. Impact of Customizability Technology on Political Polarization — Dylko, Ivan; Dolgov, Igor; Hoffman, William; Eckhart, Nicholas; Molina, Maria; Aaziz, Omar; Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 02 January 2018, Vol.15(1), pp.19-33. Gulbrandsen, Trygve Jens & Hoffmann-Lange, Ursula (2007). Consensus or polarization? Business and Labour Elites in Germany and Norway, In Fredrik Engelstad & Trygve Jens Gulbrandsen (ed.), Comparative Studies of Social and Political Elites. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7623-1379-2. Samuel Handlin, State Crisis in Fragile Democracies: Polarization and Political Regimes in South America. Cambridge University Press, 2017. Somer, Murat, and Jennifer McCoy. “Transformations through Polarizations and Global Threats to Democracy.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 681, no. 1 (January, 2019): 8–22.  “The Logic of Polarizing Populism: State Crises and Polarization in South America,” Samuel Handlin, American Behavioral Scientist, 2018. Special issue on Polarization and Democracy. Murat Somer and Jennifer McCoy, “Introduction: Déjà vu? 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Jensen, C. & J.P.F. Thomsen (2011). “Can Party Competition Amplify Mass Ideological Polarization over Public Policy? The Case of Ethnic Exclusionism in Denmark and Sweden, Party Politics, 19(5): 821–840.

Suiter, Jane & Fletcher, Richard. (2020). Polarization and partisanship: Key drivers of distrust in media old and new?. European Journal of Communication. 026732312090368. 10.1177/0267323120903685.

D.C. Trilling, M. van Klingeren & Y Tsfati (2016). Selective exposure, political polarization, and possible mediators: Evidence from the Netherlands. International Journal of Public Opinion Research.

Impact of Customizability Technology on Political Polarization — Dylko, Ivan; Dolgov, Igor; Hoffman, William; Eckhart, Nicholas; Molina, Maria; Aaziz, Omar; Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 02 January 2018, Vol.15(1), pp.19-33.

Jennifer McCoy & Murat Somer, Special Issue on Polarization and Democracy: A Janus-faced Relationship with Pernicious Consequences, American Behavioral Scientist, 62:1, January 2018.

According to Palonen, polarization solves the initial problem of fragmentation, lack of unity, by instituting a frontier that sustains two communities as a bipolar hegemony. It requires constant rearticulation and, therefore, constant antagonism on that frontier… “Similar to the one-party system or consensus, polarization and bipolar hegemony bracket out less important demands and maintain an illusion of unity, rejecting anything that might shake internal cohesion,” she underlines.