aswavelengthincreases (gets longer), what happens to energy?

1. If you grew up with a family pet, then you have surely noticed that they often seem to hear things that you don’t hear. Now that you’ve read this section, you probably have some insight as to why this may be. How would you explain this to a friend who never had the opportunity to take a class like this?

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Does frequency affectwavelength

The loudness of a given sound is closely associated with the amplitude of the sound wave. Higher amplitudes are associated with louder sounds. Loudness is measured in terms of decibels (dB), a logarithmic unit of sound intensity. A typical conversation would correlate with 60 dB; a rock concert might check in at 120 dB (figure below). A whisper 5 feet away or rustling leaves are at the low end of our hearing range; sounds like a window air conditioner, a normal conversation, and even heavy traffic or a vacuum cleaner are within a tolerable range. However, there is the potential for hearing damage from about 80 dB to 130 dB: These are sounds of a food processor, power lawnmower, heavy truck (25 feet away), subway train (20 feet away), live rock music, and a jackhammer. The threshold for pain is about 130 dB, a jet plane taking off or a revolver firing at close range (Dunkle, 1982).

As was the case with the visible spectrum, other species show differences in their audible ranges. For instance, chickens have a very limited audible range, from 125 to 2000 Hz. Mice have an audible range from 1000 to 91000 Hz, and the beluga whale’s audible range is from 1000 to 123000 Hz. Our pet dogs and cats have audible ranges of about 70–45000 Hz and 45–64000 Hz, respectively (Strain, 2003).

Whenwavelengthincreases, what happens to the frequency

There are three main features of light waves which allows us to objectively define differences between what we experience as colors. The first factor, hue is what we are usually talking about when we refer to color (a red shirt has a red hue). The hue is basically the specific name for the specific wavelength that is reflected by the object. Violet has the shortest visible wavelength in the visible spectrum (~ 400 nm), and red has the longest (700 nm). Brightness refers to the intensity of the color and depends on the amplitude or the distance between the midpoint and the peak of the wave. The higher the amplitude of the waveform, the more intense and bright the color. Finally, saturation referred to color purity which is determined by uniformity of the wavelength. Higher saturations are recorded when many wavelengths have the same size and shape. Most colors we experience are not pure meaning there are many wavelengths entering the eye of which are different shape and sized waveforms. Due to differences between color hue, amplitude of the wave and saturation, the average human is able to perceive some 2.3 million different colors (Linhares, Pinto & Nascimento, 2008).

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1. Which of the following correctly matches the pattern in our perception of color as we move from short wavelengths to long wavelengths?

Whatis wavelength

Both light and sound can be described in terms of wave forms with physical characteristics like amplitude, wavelength, and timbre. Wavelength and frequency are inversely related so that longer waves have lower frequencies, and shorter waves have higher frequencies. In the visual system, a light wave’s wavelength is generally associated with color, and its amplitude is associated with brightness. In the auditory system, a sound’s frequency is associated with pitch, and its amplitude is associated with loudness.

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Like light waves, the physical properties of sound waves are associated with various aspects of our perception of sound. Sounds waves are created by vibrations and can be thought of as ripples in the gasses that are constantly surrounding us. This is why sounds does not exist in space or complete vacuums. Without air or the presence of a gas to transmit the signal, sounds cannot exist. The frequency of a sound wave is associated with our perception of that sound’s pitch. High-frequency sound waves are perceived as high-pitched sounds, while low-frequency sound waves are perceived as low-pitched sounds. The audible range of sound frequencies is between 20 and 20000 Hz, with greatest sensitivity to those frequencies that fall in the middle of this range.

In humans, light wavelength is associated with perception of color (figure above). Within the visible spectrum, our experience of red is associated with longer wavelengths, greens are intermediate, and blues and violets are shorter in wavelength. (An easy way to remember this is the mnemonic ROYGBIV: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.) The amplitude of light waves is associated with our experience of brightness or intensity of color, with larger amplitudes appearing brighter. Animals that are able to see visible light have different ranges of color perception. Humans have three different types of color receptors (cones) resulting in a trichromatic organization of color, whereas most birds have four different types of cones resulting in a tetrachromatic experience including gray, blue, green and red. Dogs commonly thought to see in black and white actually do see in color, however their perception is limited to a more narrow arrangement of colors including black, yellow, gray and blue. Humans and animals perceive color by way of an opponent processing model of color vision where a small amount of primary color receptors mix their signals to create the perceptions of a variety of other colors (Herring, 1924). Behavioral methods have been designed which are used to better understand how many different colors animals are able to differentiate between (how many different colors are perceived) compared to how many different types of receptors they have (see Gregg, Jamison, Wilkie & Radinsky, 1924, for example of color differentiation between dogs, cats and raccoons). Where as human vision appears to operate on an opponent process model, some animals with more diverse varieties of color receptors have been show to operate on different methods of color perception. Ironically the mantis shrimp, the animal that could have the broadest, most detailed perception of color with 12 different color receptors, may not see in such the vivid arrangement that was previously thought. Recent research has demonstrated that although the mantis shrimp has 12 different types of color receptors (thus far the most known in the animal kingdom), the mantis shrimp’s visual system appears to be operating on a completely different, previously unknown color vision processing model which is based on temporal signaling combined with scanning eye movements, enabling a type of color recognition as opposed to color discrimination as in other animals and humans (Thoen, How, Chiou & Marshall, 2014).

Wavelength is directly related to the frequency of a given wave form. Frequency refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period and is often expressed in terms of hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. Longer wavelengths will have lower frequencies, and shorter wavelengths will have higher frequencies (figure below).

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aswavelengthincreases , frequency decreases

2. Why do you think humans are especially sensitive to sounds with frequencies that fall in the middle portion of the audible range?

Over the decades, the purpose of “the odd looking cube that [sat] in solitary splendor just west of Boardman Hall” was forgotten. As architect Robert O'Connor drew plans for the new Student Center in 1959, he noticed the marker stood in the path of construction and asked about its significance. Professor Theodore Lockwood, who had re-mounted the marker after it was removed during World War I due to anti-German sentiments, “prepared a place near Hallden Laboratory to which the stone marker [could] be moved,” having “taken measurements and planned the move so as not to lose the benefit of the accuracy of the original mark.” 3) Today, the stone plaque is located in front of Hallden Hall. 4)

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The Transit of Venus was an astronomical event that took place on December 6, 1882 and was observed on the Trinity College campus.

How is wavelength affectedin physics

Visual and auditory stimuli both occur in the form of waves. Although the two stimuli are very different in terms of composition, wave forms share similar characteristics that are especially important to our visual and auditory perceptions. Waveforms of different types surround us at all times, however we only have receptors which are sensitive to specific types of wavelengths. In this section, we describe the physical properties of the waves as well as the perceptual experiences associated with them.

A transit of Venus is a rare phenomenon in which Venus passes between the Earth and Sun, appearing as a black dot against the Sun's surface. A pair of transits takes place eight years apart in December followed by a gap of 121.5 years, before another pair occurs eight years apart in June, followed by another gap of 105.5 years. The last pairs of transits occurred on 8 June 2004 and 5/6 June 2012 and the next pair of transits will occur on 10–11 December 2117 and 8 December 2125. 1)

1. Why do you think other species have such different ranges of sensitivity for both visual and auditory stimuli compared to humans?

After light passes through the cornea, pupil and lens, light waves travel through the jelly like vitreous fluid in the eye and land on the retina, a dense collection of neurons covering the back wall of the eye. The retina is where millions of specialized neurons called photoreceptors which absorb light waves and turn this information into chemical and electrical signals which are processed in the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe, and the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. Rods and cones represent the two types of photo receptors that exist in the retina which get their names from their characteristic shape. Rods are are extremely sensitive to (fire in response to) single photons (quantum light units, the smallest packet of light, Rieke & Baylor, 1998). Rods create scotopic vision which encodes less intense light and are mainly responsible for humans ability for night vision. Rods are much more common in the human retina compared to cones with about 100 rod cells compared to about seven million cone cells (Williamson & Cummins, 1983). Cone receptors on the other hand allow us to experience the vivid diversity of different wavelength reflections from objects which create our perception of colors. It is important to note that color is not an innate property of object in the world and is created by they way our receptors respond to the way light is reflected off objects. Because one organism perceives an object as being blue and another experiences the same object as being gray does not mean one organisms perception is wrong or incorrect, it just means that they have receptors that are tuned to send different signals to color processing areas of their brains when experiencing the reflection of light off that object. Color is an interpretation that is created by mixing activation of the specific receptors we have and the signals those receptors send to higher processing areas of the brain. In addition to allowing us to see color, cones also process fine details and allow for visual acuity.

2. Once again, one could make an evolutionary argument here. Given that the human voice falls in this middle range and the importance of communication among humans, one could argue that it is quite adaptive to have an audible range that centers on this particular type of stimulus.

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opponent process: Perception of color derives from a special group of neurons that respond to opponent colors (red-green, blue-yellow)

The visible spectrum is the portion of the larger electromagnetic spectrum that we can see. As the figure below shows, the electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all of the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment and includes gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves. These waves are everywhere around us at all times but for some waveforms we need to use sophisticated tools in order to translate this information into visible light waves we are able to see. The visible spectrum in humans is associated with wavelengths that range from 380 to 740 nm—a very small distance, since a nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter. Other species can detect other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. For instance, honeybees can see light in the ultraviolet range (Wakakuwa, Stavenga, & Arikawa, 2007), and some snakes can detect infrared radiation in addition to more traditional visual light cues (Chen, Deng, Brauth, Ding, & Tang, 2012; Hartline, Kass, & Loop, 1978).

Of course, different musical instruments can play the same musical note at the same level of loudness, yet they still sound quite different. This is known as the timbre of a sound. Timbre refers to a sound’s purity, and it is affected by the complex interplay of frequency, amplitude, and timing of sound waves.

Although wave amplitude is generally associated with loudness, there is some interaction between frequency and amplitude in our perception of loudness within the audible range. For example, a 10 Hz sound wave is inaudible no matter the amplitude of the wave. A 1000 Hz sound wave, on the other hand, would vary dramatically in terms of perceived loudness as the amplitude of the wave increased.

Answer: Other species have evolved to best suit their particular environmental niches. For example, the honeybee relies on flowering plants for survival. Seeing in the ultraviolet light might prove especially helpful when locating flowers. Once a flower is found, the ultraviolet rays point to the center of the flower where the pollen and nectar are contained. Similar arguments could be made for infrared detection in snakes as well as for the differences in audible ranges of the species described in this section.

Howdoes amplitude affectwavelength

What doeswavelengthdetermine in sound

The human retina is a fascinating structure because light is actually processed seemingly in reverse, beginning with the pigment epithelium which is organized into receptive fields on the outside layer of the retina, and continuing toward the front of the eye through the rods and cones. The rods and cones transmit information to bipolar cells which transmit signals to to ganglion cells located at the from of the retina that bundle together and relay information to deeper structures of the brain by way of the optic nerve. The area where the ganglion cells bundle together to form the optic nerve exit the retina at the optic disc, which creates a natural blind spot in each eye. However the blind spot created by the exiting of the optic nerve is not perceived due to compensation of information from receptions surrounding the blindspot as well as information compensated from the other eye that is able to perceive information in the other eyes blind spot due to the light hitting the compensating eye in a different location on the retina. This will be additionally reviewed in the following section on vision.

The transit viewing garnered much publicity for Trinity, and the College placed an inscribed stone marker atop the concrete pier “on which stood the heliometer with which the transit of Venus was observed two years earlier.” It read:

The Transit of Venus event led directly to the creation of the Astronomy department and building of St. John Observatory in 1884. The observatory was placed by the commemorative marker and torn down in 1938, after which the department atrophied.

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Two physical characteristics of a wave are amplitude and wavelength (figure below). The amplitude of a wave is the height of a wave as measured from the highest point on the wave (peak or crest) to the lowest point on the wave (trough). Wavelength refers to the length of a wave from one peak to the next.

1. Other species have evolved to best suit their particular environmental niches. For example, the honeybee relies on flowering plants for survival. Seeing in the ultraviolet light might prove especially helpful when locating flowers. Once a flower is found, the ultraviolet rays point to the center of the flower where the pollen and nectar are contained. Similar arguments could be made for infrared detection in snakes as well as for the differences in audible ranges of the species described in this section.

In addition to equipment, fickle New England weather played a role in the observations. Leading to the viewing, there was a 50 percent chance of rain, but by mid-morning “to the delight of everybody, the clouds disappeared and the sun shone forth with a dark spot on its lower portion.” The full observations of Venus' movement took four hours. Dr. Mueller stated, “How much fortune has favored us is seen from the fact that soon after the transit it became completely overcast, and during all the following day a strong snowstorm ravaged.” The team remained on campus for two more weeks, and departed on December 19. Dr. Arthur Auwers, President of the Imperial Commission, published a report on the transits, a copy of which resides in the Watkinson Library.

On November 3, 1882, Trinity College became home to several distinguished German scientists and members of the German Commission, who were stationed at the College to track the transit of Venus on December 6. The astronomy team had chosen Trinity “because of the campus's superior elevation relative to the horizon,” as well as the campus' relative isolation to other buildings. 2) During their stay, Dr. Gustav Mueller, assistant at the astrophysical observatory at Potsdam; Dr. Fritz Deischmueller, of the observatory at Bonn; Julius Bauschwiger, scientific assistant; and Herman Dolter, mechanician; lived in Seabury 18 and 19. They brought with them seven tons of equipment in 33 cases, constructed several small buildings, and utilized, among other instruments, thermometers, telescopes, refractors, a heliometer, and a collamator.

Answer: Once again, one could make an evolutionary argument here. Given that the human voice falls in this middle range and the importance of communication among humans, one could argue that it is quite adaptive to have an audible range that centers on this particular type of stimulus.