Excerpted from the AP Physics C: Mechanics Course and Exam Description, the Course at a Glance document outlines the topics and skills covered in the AP Physics C: Mechanics course, along with suggestions for sequencing. It was updated in the summer of 2024.

What is the objective in a microscopeexplain

Another practically important factor is the working distance, i.e., the distance between the objective and the object. Small working distances are generally required for objectives with high NA, but also can to some extent be optimized as a design goal (possibly somewhat compromising the NA or the correction). For objectives with oil immersion, a relatively small working distance is actually good, since otherwise one would require more of the immersion fluid, and that would be more difficult to hold in place.

Note that a large magnification alone is not helpful if it only makes images larger without increasing the level of detail; see below the section on the numerical aperture.

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Edmund Optics offers a wide variety of microscopy components including microscope objectives, inverted and stereo microscopes, or optical filters that are ideal for use in microscopy setups. Microscope objectives are available in a range of magnifications and include infinity corrected, finite conjugate, and reflective objectives in industry leading brands such as Mitutoyo or Olympus. Microscope objectives are ideal for a range of research, industrial, life science, or general lab applications. Microscopy filters are ideal for isolating specific wavelengths in fluorescence imaging applications.

Microscope objectives are sometimes used for applications outside microscopy. For example, they can be used for tight focusing of laser beams, with spot sizes of a few micrometers or even below 1 μm. If the input beam is a collimated beam, an infinity-corrected objective will work best. The objective should have a numerical aperture which fits well to the beam divergence related to the required spot size. The input beam radius should also be chosen appropriately, i.e., calculated from the required spot size and the focal length. A difficulty may be to find out the focal length, as the objective barrel often only indicates the magnification, and the conversion to the focal length depends on the microscope design.

Some microscopes allow the injection of illumination light through the objective to the sample. It is then important that there is no significant scattering of light in the objective.

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There are also often color-coded rings indicating different magnification values, e.g. black for 1 ×, yellow for 4 ×, green for 10 ×, etc.

Objectives for dark-field illumination are tentatively larger, providing extra space for the illumination light; therefore, they are typically used with larger threads.

Modern microscopes mostly require infinity-corrected objectives, where the intermediate image of the objective alone lies at infinite distance. Here, one requires an additional tube lens in the microscope for generating the intermediate image at the diaphragm of the eyepiece.

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Whatdoesthestage do ona microscope

The objective lens is the most important part of a microscope and plays a central role in imaging an object onto the human eye or an image sensor for discerning the object’s detail. Microscope objectives are ideal for a range of science research, industrial, and general lab applications.

As part of the course development process for AP Physics C, we gathered course research by examining college syllabi, analyzing textbooks and pedagogical research, and conducting content advisory sessions with college faculty. Based on this research, an advisory board and writing team collaborated on the course frameworks.

The highest numerical apertures achievable with dry objectives, operated with air between the objective and the object, are approximately 0.95. Substantially higher values of e.g. 1.5 or even higher can be achieved with immersion objectives, where the gap between the object and the objective is filled with a liquid – water or some immersion oil with a higher refractive index, often somewhat above 1.5. Optimized immersion oils do not only have a high refractive index, but also a suitable viscosity and a low tendency for producing stains on the surfaces. They can be left on an objective over longer times without damaging it.

Optical microscopes usually work based on imaging with visible light, i.e., in the wavelength region from 400 nm to 700 nm. Therefore, most microscope objectives are optimized for that wavelength range, with most emphasis on the region from 480 nm to 640 nm. However, there are objectives with an enhanced range of e.g. 400 nm to 950 nm, and others which work further in the infrared. For example, that is required for laser microscopes where infrared laser beams need to be transmitted.

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Chromatic aberrations essentially result from the wavelength dependence of focal length. They lead to colored image distortions. For conventional microscopy, they can be quite relevant, in contrast to other types of optical microscopy, e.g. certain types of laser microscopy. Best suppression of chromatic aberrations is achieved with apochromatic objectives.

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Older microscopes usually require finite-corrected objectives. Here, the object is supposed to be placed a little below the front focal plane of the objective, and the intermediate image occurs at a finite distance of e.g. 160 mm from the objective. Such an objective is designed for minimum image distortions in that configuration.

At least for high magnifications, the influence of a cover slip in terms of chromatic and spherical aberrations can be quite important. Therefore, objectives for use in fields like biology, where cover slips are often needed, are designed with integrated cover slip correction. The correction is often done for a standard slip thickness of 170 μm. A deviation of only 10 μm can already be quite problematic for an objective with a high NA of e.g. 0.95. Some objectives allow the adjustment of the corrected cover slip thickness.

The design of a high quality microscope objective is a rather sophisticated task, for which substantial optics expertise and powerful optics design software are required. Such designs involve complicated trade-offs, which should be properly handled according to the importance of different aspects for a particular application.

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The microscope objective is a key component for reaching high performance of a microscope. It is the part which is placed next to the observed object, usually in a fairly small distance of a few millimeters. Usually, the microscope objective produces an intermediate image in the microscope, which is then further magnified with an eyepiece (ocular lens). Particularly in cases with high magnification, most of the magnification is provided by the objective.

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Objectivelensmicroscopefunction

Microscopes often contain multiple objectives on a rotatable nosepiece, for example a scanning lens with only 4 × magnification, an intermediate one (the small objective lens) with 10 × and a high-resolution large objective with 40 × or 100 × magnification. The eye piece may contribute another factor 5 or 10 in magnification, for example.

The focal length of a microscope objective is typically between 2 mm and 40 mm. However, that parameter is often considered as less important, since magnification and numerical aperture are sufficient for quantifying the essential performance in a microscope.

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Most microscopes objectives are based on refractive optics, containing several lenses. For example, a simple low-NA objective may contain a meniscus lens and an achromat. A high-NA objective typically contains a more complicated combination of various types of lenses of hemispherical, meniscus, achromatic doublet and triplet type.

Unfortunately, perfect solutions are not available; therefore, one has to accept certain trade-offs, which lead to different optimized solutions for different applications. For example, optimum flat field properties are most important for measurement microscopes; one may then tolerate somewhat larger chromatic aberrations.

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Figure 1: Diagram of the directions of propagation and displacement for three types of wave: (a) longitudinal, (b) transverse (unpolarised), and (c) transverse ...

Note that some microscope designs count on the correction of some residual aberrations of the objective by the ocular lens.

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Stagemicroscope

AP Physics C: Mechanics is a one-semester, calculus-based, college-level physics course, especially appropriate for students planning to specialize or major in one of the physical sciences or engineering. Students cultivate their understanding of physics through classroom study, in-class activity, and hands-on, inquiry-based laboratory work as they explore concepts like change, force interactions, fields, and conservation.

The AP Physics C: Mechanics course framework outlines distinct skills, called science practices, that students should practice throughout the year—skills that will help them learn to think and act like physicists.

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Note that it is essential not only to have a good transmittance over the full wavelength range, but also achromatic performance. In conventional light microscopes, this is needed to avoid colored image distortions. In confocal multi-photon fluorescence microscopes, it is important to have the same focus positions for infrared laser light as for the fluorescence light.

Finite-corrected objectives are always designed for a certain tube length, e.g. according to DIN or JIS standard (which differ by 10 mm in tube length). Using an objective of the wrong standard may significantly deteriorate the obtained image quality.

Parts ofa microscope

Another application is launching light into a single-mode fiber or collimating light from such a fiber. Again, the objective should have an appropriate numerical aperture of the order of that of the fiber. For more details, see the article on fiber launch systems.

The higher the magnification, the higher is also the required numerical aperture because this is the factor which ultimately limits the achievable image resolution. There are different ways of calculating the image resolution and are slightly different circumstances, but they lead to similar resolution values, which are roughly <$\lambda / (2 NA)$>, where <$\lambda$> is the optical wavelength (about 400 to 700 nm) and NA is the numerical aperture. For example, an NA of 1 allows for an image resolution of roughly 250 nm for green light. For low magnification, an NA of 0.1 may be fully sufficient.

In most cases, a microscope objective is mounted on the nosepiece of a microscope using a thread. Unfortunately, there are different thread sizes used by different manufacturers and for objectives of different kinds. In some cases, special adapters can be used for applying an objective to a microscope with different threads.

The AP Physics C: Mechanics course framework is organized into seven commonly taught units of study that provide one possible sequence for the course. As always, you’ll have the flexibility to organize the course content as you like.

Note that oil immersion may not work properly e.g. when observing a biological sample in an aqueous solution and the oil is only between the cover slip and the objective. One may have to use special water immersion objectives for such cases.

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Types ofmicroscopeobjectives

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The course framework included in the course and exam description (CED) clearly details the course requirements necessary for student success. The framework also encourages instruction that prepares students to make connections across domains through a broader way of thinking about the physical world.

Shanghai Optics custom microscope objectives are designed with the assistance of CAD, Solidworks and Zemax software using top quality glass having highly specific refractive indices. This enables us to produce microscope objectives that are very low in dispersion and corrected for the most of the common optical artifacts such as coma, astigmatism, geometrical distortion, field curvature, spherical and chromatic aberration.

There are also reflective objectives, containing curved mirrors and no lenses. They are naturally achromatic and may be advantageous for operation in extreme wavelength domains. Also, they can exhibit lower losses of optical power.

For such applications, chromatic aberrations are often no issue, so that one does not exploit the chromatic correction of the objective. Also, a wide field of view would not be required. On the other hand, a microscope objective for visible light may well not have ideal properties e.g. for launching near infrared light into a fiber, and its power handling capability is limited (but usually not specified). Therefore, a microscope objective may not be the ideal solution for such an application. However, it may have to be used, e.g. if no other lenses are available for reaching the required small spot size.

MicroscopeObjectives magnification

Although a microscope objective is sometimes called the objective lens, it usually contains multiple lenses. The higher the numerical aperture and the higher the required image quality, the more sophisticated designs are needed. High-end microscope objectives may also involve aspheric lenses.

... Beam Divergence. Calculate Beam Divergence. Beam Parameter Product (mm-mrad)*. Beam Diameter (mm)*. Beam Half Divergence Angle (mrad).

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Laboratory experience must be part of the education of AP Physics students and must be included in all AP Physics courses. Colleges may require students to present their laboratory materials from AP science courses before granting college credit for laboratory, so students are encouraged to retain their laboratory notebooks, reports, and other materials.

Particularly for objectives with high numerical aperture, a high image quality can be achieved only with substantial efforts for correcting various kinds of optical aberrations such as spherical, astigmatism, coma, field curvature, image distortion and chromatic aberrations. For example, plan-apochromatic objectives, having particularly sophisticated designs, provide optimum flat field correction combined with good achromatic properties.