Learn more about how to make the most of wide-angle lenses in: Exploring Wide Angle Lenses Part 1: Photo Effects of Wide-Angle Lenses 24mm Closeups: 3 Simple Exercises for Mastering Wide-Angle Perspective

Telephoto lenses provide an angle of view that is much narrower than human vision. 70-200mm lenses provide the classic telephoto focal range.

where \(I_{0}\) is the intensity of the polarized wave before passing through the filter. Equation \ref{27.9.1} is known as Malus’s law.

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This focal length is measured when the lens is focused to infinity (far into the distance). This is because when the lens is focused to infinity, light rays enter the lens almost parallel. When focused on a nearby subject, they enter the lens at an angle.

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The focal length also affects many other aspects of your image, such as perspective and depth of field. To find out more,  see 4 Lens Concepts to Revolutionise Your Photos.

Light entering the lens converges (crosses) on its way to the image sensor. This convergence point is known as the optical centre of the lens and has the sharpest focus. The focal length is the distance between this convergence point and the image sensor.

Find Polaroid sunglasses and rotate one while holding the other still and look at different surfaces and objects. Explain your observations. What is the difference in angle from when you see a maximum intensity to when you see a minimum intensity? Find a reflective glass surface and do the same. At what angle does the glass need to be oriented to give minimum glare?

Solving the equation \(I = I_{0} \cos{\theta}^{2}\) for \(\cos{\theta}\) and substituting with the relationship between \(I\) and \(I_{0}\) gives

Photographs of the sky can be darkened by polarizing filters, a trick used by many photographers to make clouds brighter by contrast. Scattering from other particles, such as smoke or dust, can also polarize light. Detecting polarization in scattered EM waves can be a useful analytical tool in determining the scattering source.

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Polarizing filters have a polarization axis that acts as a slit. This slit passes electromagnetic waves (often visible light) that have an electric field parallel to the axis. This is accomplished with long molecules aligned perpendicular to the axis as shown in Figure 9.

Learn composition techniques that leverage on the characteristics of different lenses in: Professional Composition Techniques (3): Making Good Use of Lenses

We usually describe a lens by its focal length. What does it refer to and how does it affect your images? Find out in this article.

FOV tofocal length

In flat screen LCD televisions, there is a large light at the back of the TV. The light travels to the front screen through millions of tiny units called pixels (picture elements). One of these is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{12a}\) and \(\PageIndex{12b}\). Each unit has three cells, with red, blue, or green filters, each controlled independently. When the voltage across a liquid crystal is switched off, the liquid crystal passes the light through the particular filter. One can vary the picture contrast by varying the strength of the voltage applied to the liquid crystal.

Fresnel was awarded the Grand Prix and his work was a strong argument for a wave theory of light. However polarisation of light produced by reflection still ...

If you hold your Polaroid sunglasses in front of you and rotate them while looking at blue sky, you will see the sky get bright and dim. This is a clear indication that light scattered by air is partially polarized. Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\) helps illustrate how this happens. Since light is a transverse EM wave, it vibrates the electrons of air molecules perpendicular to the direction it is traveling. The electrons then radiate like small antennae. Since they are oscillating perpendicular to the direction of the light ray, they produce EM radiation that is polarized perpendicular to the direction of the ray. When viewing the light along a line perpendicular to the original ray, as in Figure 11, there can be no polarization in the scattered light parallel to the original ray, because that would require the original ray to be a longitudinal wave. Along other directions, a component of the other polarization can be projected along the line of sight, and the scattered light will only be partially polarized. Furthermore, multiple scattering can bring light to your eyes from other directions and can contain different polarizations.

Olympus BX 60 Fluorescence Microscope has light pathways for transmitted or reflected brightfield, DIC, darkfield, and.

Polaroid sunglasses are familiar to most of us. They have a special ability to cut the glare of light reflected from water or glass (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Polaroids have this ability because of a wave characteristic of light called polarization. What is polarization? How is it produced? What are some of its uses? The answers to these questions are related to the wave character of light.

At 16mm, we can capture the entire façade of the fire station as well as the road and the hedge in the foreground. As the focal length increases, details appear bigger in the frame while more of the foreground and the building is cropped out. 200mm gives us a good close-up of the building name and the crests below it.

What angle is needed between the direction of polarized light and the axis of a polarizing filter to reduce its intensity by \(90.0 \% \)?

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Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) shows the effect of two polarizing filters on originally unpolarized light. The first filter polarizes the light along its axis. When the axes of the first and second filters are aligned (parallel), then all of the polarized light passed by the first filter is also passed by the second. If the second polarizing filter is rotated, only the component of the light parallel to the second filter’s axis is passed. When the axes are perpendicular, no light is passed by the second.

When picking a lens, one of the first things you must decide on is the focal length or focal range that you want. This is because the focal length describes the angle of view, i.e., it tells how much of the scene in front of you the lens can capture.

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A fairly large angle between the direction of polarization and the filter axis is needed to reduce the intensity to \(10.0 \%\) of its original value. This seems reasonable based on experimenting with polarizing films. It is interesting that, at an angle of \(45^{\circ}\), the intensity is reduced to \(50\%\) of its original value (as you will show in this section’s Problems & Exercises). Note that \(71.6^{\circ}\) is \(18.4^{\circ}\) from reducing the intensity to zero, and that at an angle of \(18.4^{\circ}\) the intensity is reduced to \(90.0\%\) of its original value (as you will also show in Problems & Exercises), giving evidence of symmetry.

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Focal lengthcamera

Another interesting phenomenon associated with polarized light is the ability of some crystals to split an unpolarized beam of light into two. Such crystals are said to be berefringent (see Figure 15). Each of the separated rays has a specific polarization. One behaves normally and is called the ordinary ray, whereas the other does not obey Snell’s law and is called the extraordinary ray. Birefringent crystals can be used to produce polarized beams from unpolarized light. Some birefringent materials preferentially absorb one of the polarizations. These materials are called dichroic and can produce polarization by this preferential absorption. This is fundamentally how polarizing filters and other polarizers work. The interested reader is invited to further pursue the numerous properties of materials related to polarization.

To examine this further, consider the transverse waves in the ropes shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). The oscillations in one rope are in a vertical plane and are said to be vertically polarized. Those in the other rope are in a horizontal plane and are horizontally polarized. If a vertical slit is placed on the first rope, the waves pass through. However, a vertical slit blocks the horizontally polarized waves. For EM waves, the direction of the electric field is analogous to the disturbances on the ropes.

Figure 10 illustrates how the component of the electric field parallel to the long molecules is absorbed. An electromagnetic wave is composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The electric field is strong compared with the magnetic field and is more effective in exerting force on charges in the molecules. The most affected charged particles are the electrons in the molecules, since electron masses are small. If the electron is forced to oscillate, it can absorb energy from the EM wave. This reduces the fields in the wave and, hence, reduces its intensity. In long molecules, electrons can more easily oscillate parallel to the molecule than in the perpendicular direction. The electrons are bound to the molecule and are more restricted in their movement perpendicular to the molecule. Thus, the electrons can absorb EM waves that have a component of their electric field parallel to the molecule. The electrons are much less responsive to electric fields perpendicular to the molecule and will allow those fields to pass. Thus the axis of the polarizing filter is perpendicular to the length of the molecule.

Lenses are classified as wide-angle, standard, or telephoto depending on their focal lengths. Ultra-wide-angle lenses are a subset of wide-angle lenses, whereas medium telephoto and super telephoto lenses are subsets of telephoto lenses.

Any focal length above 135mm full-frame equivalent is considered telephoto. However, 70 to 135mm (full-frame equivalent) is considered short or medium telephoto. These are popular for portrait and product photography due to their natural perspective and comfortable working distance for close-up shots.

Let’s look at what happens when we shoot at different focal lengths from the same position. Note: For ease of illustration, the angles shown in this article are the horizontal angle of view.

Only the component of the EM wave parallel to the axis of a filter is passed. Let us call the angle between the direction of polarization and the axis of a filter \(\theta\). If the electric field has an amplitude \(E\), then the transmitted part of the wave has an amplitude \(E \cos{\theta}\) (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). Since the intensity of a wave is proportional to its amplitude squared, the intensity \(I\) of the transmitted wave is related to the incident wave by

You need a very long focal length to capture a detailed close-up picture of the moon without cropping. The image above was captured at 1600mm using an 800mm lens and a 2x extender.

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A shorter focal length… - Captures more of the scene (= has a wider angle of view) - Makes distant objects appear smaller (= has lower magnification)

Ultra-wide-angle lenses exaggerate perspective so distances between objects look bigger. When combined with the wide field of view, it can bring out a sense of space.

While you are undoubtedly aware of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) found in watches, calculators, computer screens, cellphones, flat screen televisions, and other myriad places, you may not be aware that they are based on polarization. Liquid crystals are so named because their molecules can be aligned even though they are in a liquid. Liquid crystals have the property that they can rotate the polarization of light passing through them by \(90^{\circ}\). Furthermore, this property can be turned off by the application of a voltage, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\). It is possible to manipulate this characteristic quickly and in small well-defined regions to create the contrast patterns we see in so many LCD devices.

A longer focal length… - Captures less of the scene (= has a narrower angle of view) - Makes distant objects appear bigger (= has a higher magnification)

Light is one type of electromagnetic (EM) wave. As noted earlier, EM waves are transverse waves consisting of varying electric and magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). There are specific directions for the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields. Polarization is the attribute that a wave’s oscillations have a definite direction relative to the direction of propagation of the wave. (This is not the same type of polarization as that discussed for the separation of charges.) Waves having such a direction are said to be polarized. For an EM wave, we define the direction of polarization to be the direction parallel to the electric field. Thus we can think of the electric field arrows as showing the direction of polarization, as in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).

There is a range of optical effects used in sunglasses. Besides being Polaroid, other sunglasses have colored pigments embedded in them, while others use non-reflective or even reflective coatings. A recent development is photochromic lenses, which darken in the sunlight and become clear indoors. Photochromic lenses are embedded with organic microcrystalline molecules that change their properties when exposed to UV in sunlight, but become clear in artificial lighting with no UV.

Ultra-wide-angle lenses take in so much that they are perfect for capturing grand scenes and large objects that are right in front of you, especially in tight spaces where you cannot move further back.

Varifocal progressive lenses use a simplistic design since they're single-vision lenses. They work by providing gentle, gradual changes of visual distance in ...

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Polaroid materials, invented by the founder of Polaroid Corporation, Edwin Land, act as a polarizing slit for light, allowing only polarization in one direction to pass through. Polarizing filters are composed of long molecules aligned in one direction. Thinking of the molecules as many slits, analogous to those for the oscillating ropes, we can understand why only light with a specific polarization can get through. The axis of a polarizing filter is the direction along which the filter passes the electric field of an EM wave (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).

Focaldistance vsfocal length

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Similarly, for crown glass and air, \[\tan{\theta_{b}'} = \frac{n'_{2}}{n_{1}} = \frac{1.520}{1.00} = 1.52.\] Thus, \[\theta_{b}' = \tan{1.52}^{-1} = 56.7^{\circ}.\]

Focal lengthformula

Since the part of the light that is not reflected is refracted, the amount of polarization depends on the indices of refraction of the media involved. It can be shown that reflected light is completely polarized at a angle of reflection \(\theta_{b}\), given by \[\tan{\theta_{b}} = \frac{n_{2}}{n_{1}}, \label{27.9.4}\] where \(n_{1}\) is the medium in which the incident and reflected light travel and \(n_{2}\) is the index of refraction of the medium that forms the interface that reflects the light. This equation is known as Brewster's law, and \(\theta_{b}\) is known as Brewster's angle, named after the 19th-century Scottish physicist who discovered them.

What isfocal lengthof lens

All we need to solve these problems are the indices of refraction. Air has \(n_{1} = 100\), water has \(n_{2} = 1.333\), and crown glass has \(n'_{2} = 1.520\). The equation \(\tan{\theta_{b}} = \frac{n_{2}}{n_{1}}\) can be directly applied to find \(\theta_{b}\) in each case.

This page titled 27.8: Polarization is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.

Glass and plastic become optically active when stressed; the greater the stress, the greater the effect. Optical stress analysis on complicated shapes can be performed by making plastic models of them and observing them through crossed filters, as seen in Figure 14. It is apparent that the effect depends on wavelength as well as stress. The wavelength dependence is sometimes also used for artistic purposes.

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Figure 8 illustrates what happens when unpolarized light is reflected from a surface. Vertically polarized light is preferentially refracted at the surface, so that the reflected light is left more horizontally polarized. The reasons for this phenomenon are beyond the scope of this text, but a convenient mnemonic for remembering this is to imagine the polarization direction to be like an arrow. Vertical polarization would be like an arrow perpendicular to the surface and would be more likely to stick and not be reflected. Horizontal polarization is like an arrow bouncing on its side and would be more likely to be reflected. Sunglasses with vertical axes would then block more reflected light than unpolarized light from other sources.

Light reflected at these angles could be completely blocked by a good polarizing filter held with its axis vertical. Brewster’s angle for water and air are similar to those for glass and air, so that sunglasses are equally effective for light reflected from either water or glass under similar circumstances. Light not reflected is refracted into these media. So at an incident angle equal to Brewster’s angle, the refracted light will be slightly polarized vertically. It will not be completely polarized vertically, because only a small fraction of the incident light is reflected, and so a significant amount of horizontally polarized light is refracted.

Due to physics, a lens with a shorter focal length has a wider angle of view, and one with a longer focal length has a narrower angle of view. And that’s how we came to use focal length to describe the angle of view of a lens!

Focal length

Learn more about what you can do with a standard lens in: Standard Lens Techniques: Using the Point of View to Draw the Viewer In 50mm Portraits, My Style: Creating A Picture of a Memory

When the intensity is reduced by \(90.0 \%\), it is \(10.0 \%\) or 0.100 times its original value. That is, \(I = 0.100 I_{0}\). Using this information, the equation \(I = I_{0}\cos{\theta}^{2}\) can be used to solve for the needed angle.

Depending on the scene and your intentions, you might not need to go ultra-wide to frame what you want to show perfectly.

A standard or “normal” lens gives a perspective that is very close to that of human vision. Most kit lenses are standard zoom lenses. The popular RF50mm f/1.8 STM “nifty fifty” lens is a standard lens on a full-frame camera, whereas the RF28mm f/2.8 STM is a slightly wider standard lens on an APS-C camera.

Paraxial Rays. The small bundle of rays that travel through an optical system on- or nearly on-axis. They are useful for first-order approximations and for ...

The Sun and many other light sources produce waves that are randomly polarized (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). Such light is said to be unpolarized because it is composed of many waves with all possible directions of polarization.

By now you can probably guess that Polaroid sunglasses cut the glare in reflected light because that light is polarized. You can check this for yourself by holding Polaroid sunglasses in front of you and rotating them while looking at light reflected from water or glass. As you rotate the sunglasses, you will notice the light gets bright and dim, but not completely black. This implies the reflected light is partially polarized and cannot be completely blocked by a polarizing filter.

Also see: Why Is a Super Telephoto Lens Necessary for Sports Photography? What is the difference between a 200mm and 300mm telephoto lens?

When you look straight ahead with your bare eyes, the field of view in focus is around 50° to 60°. Wide-angle lenses are any lens that gives a field of view wider than that. Ultra-wide-angle lenses are a special kind of wide-angle lens.

Notice how the buildings don’t appear to converge towards the top. They would on a wide-angle lens due to perspective exaggeration.

Many crystals and solutions rotate the plane of polarization of light passing through them. Such substances are said to be optically active. Examples include sugar water, insulin, and collagen (Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\)). In addition to depending on the type of substance, the amount and direction of rotation depends on a number of factors. Among these is the concentration of the substance, the distance the light travels through it, and the wavelength of light. Optical activity is due to the asymmetric shape of molecules in the substance, such as being helical. Measurements of the rotation of polarized light passing through substances can thus be used to measure concentrations, a standard technique for sugars. It can also give information on the shapes of molecules, such as proteins, and factors that affect their shapes, such as temperature and pH.

Getting up close to birds and other wildlife requires a special type of telephoto lens: a super telephoto lens. You may want to combine it with an extender for even further reach.