Infrared Optics - materials transparent to ir

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Fno Surname Meaning · No · Ono · Uno · Fino · Feo · Fano · Eno · Foo, Ko, Fu. 43 record ...

Density 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Reduction by f-stops 1/3 2/3 1 1 1/3 1 2/3 2 2 1/3 2 2/3 3 3 1/3 6 2/3 10 13 1/3 For example, Tiffen and B+W have 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 ND filters for reducing one, two and three stops of light. Hoya, on the other hand, uses 2×, 4× and 8× to indicate reducing 1 (i.e. 2=21), 2 (i.e., 4=22), and 3 (i.e., 8=23) stops. The two ND filters come with Nikon's Coolpack are of ND4 and ND8 type, which means they reduce two and three stops, respectively. All ND filters are gray in color. The deeper the color, the stronger the effect (i.e., reducing more light). The following shows Nikon's ND4 (font) and ND8 (rear) filters. From the shadows, it is clear that a ND8 blocks more light than a ND4 does. Based on this understanding, ND filters help us in at least three situations: (1) reduce the intensity of light; (2) use slower shutter speed; and (3) use larger aperture. We shall discuss each of these situation briefly below. Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

transitive verb (Physics & Astron.) To render parallel to a certain line or direction; to bring into the same line, as the axes of telescopes, etc.; to render ...

Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

When DOP = 0, light is said to be unpolarized, and when DOP = 1, it is totally polarized. Intermediate cases correspond to partially polarized light

An all-fiber controller based on this mechanism can be constructed, with several desirable properties such as the low insertion loss and cost, as shown in Figure 3. In this device, three fiber coils replace the three free-space retardation plates. Coiling the fiber induces stress, producing birefringence inversely proportional to the square of the coils’ diameters. Adjusting the diameters and number of turns can create any desired fiber wave plate. Because bending the fiber generally induces insertion loss, the fiber coils must remain relatively large.

Neutral densityfilter Ophthalmology

Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) is actually another form of material dispersion. Single-mode fiber supports a mode, which in fact consists of two orthogonal polarization modes. Ideally, the core of an optical fiber is perfectly circular. However, in reality, the core is not perfectly circular, and mechanical stresses such as bending, introduce birefringence in the fiber. This causes one of the orthogonal polarization modes to travel faster than the other, hence causing dispersion of the optical pulse.

The main purpose of using neutral density (i.e., ND) filters is to reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens. As a result, if a shutter speed is kept the same, after adding a neutral density filter, a larger aperture must be used to obtain the same exposure. Similarly, if an aperture is kept the same, after adding a neutral density filter, a slower shutter speed must be used to obtain the same exposure. This can be seen in the following diagram. Note that this diagram was discussed in the Program Mode (950, 990 and 995). Recall that the thick red line indicates a constant exposure value (i.e., EV). To achieve this "correct" exposure, there are many different aperture-shutter speed combinations. After adding a ND filter, the exposure value is reduced because there is less light passing through the lens. This is shown as a dashed line in the above figure. Thus, if we want to keep the original shutter speed (without using a ND filter), aperture has to be wider; or, if we want to keep the original aperture, shutter speed must be slower. Different ND filter manufacture many use a different way to indicate the amount of light a ND filter can reduce. There are two typical systems as shown below: Density 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Reduction by f-stops 1/3 2/3 1 1 1/3 1 2/3 2 2 1/3 2 2/3 3 3 1/3 6 2/3 10 13 1/3 For example, Tiffen and B+W have 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 ND filters for reducing one, two and three stops of light. Hoya, on the other hand, uses 2×, 4× and 8× to indicate reducing 1 (i.e. 2=21), 2 (i.e., 4=22), and 3 (i.e., 8=23) stops. The two ND filters come with Nikon's Coolpack are of ND4 and ND8 type, which means they reduce two and three stops, respectively. All ND filters are gray in color. The deeper the color, the stronger the effect (i.e., reducing more light). The following shows Nikon's ND4 (font) and ND8 (rear) filters. From the shadows, it is clear that a ND8 blocks more light than a ND4 does. Based on this understanding, ND filters help us in at least three situations: (1) reduce the intensity of light; (2) use slower shutter speed; and (3) use larger aperture. We shall discuss each of these situation briefly below. Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Neutral Densitylens

by H Semat — index of refraction of the material of the lens with respect to the medium. Just as in the case of mirrors, we may define the transverse magnifica- tion m ...

Mar 25, 2024 — High power objective lenses are used to magnify the specimen at a greater level, allowing for a more detailed and close-up view of the specimen.

Birefringence is also observed in an optical fiber, due to the slight asymmetry in the fiber core cross-section along the length and due to external stresses applied on the fiber such as bending. In general, the stress-induced birefringence dominates the geometry-induced one.

In the first configuration, a Half-Wave Plate (HWP) is sandwiched between two Quarter-Wave Plates (QWP) and the retardation plates are free to rotate around the optical beam with respect to each other. The first QWP converts any arbitrary input polarization into a linear polarization. The HWP then rotates the linear polarization to a desired angle so that the second QWP can translate the linear polarization to any desired polarization state.

Different ND filter manufacture many use a different way to indicate the amount of light a ND filter can reduce. There are two typical systems as shown below: Density 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Reduction by f-stops 1/3 2/3 1 1 1/3 1 2/3 2 2 1/3 2 2/3 3 3 1/3 6 2/3 10 13 1/3 For example, Tiffen and B+W have 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 ND filters for reducing one, two and three stops of light. Hoya, on the other hand, uses 2×, 4× and 8× to indicate reducing 1 (i.e. 2=21), 2 (i.e., 4=22), and 3 (i.e., 8=23) stops. The two ND filters come with Nikon's Coolpack are of ND4 and ND8 type, which means they reduce two and three stops, respectively. All ND filters are gray in color. The deeper the color, the stronger the effect (i.e., reducing more light). The following shows Nikon's ND4 (font) and ND8 (rear) filters. From the shadows, it is clear that a ND8 blocks more light than a ND4 does. Based on this understanding, ND filters help us in at least three situations: (1) reduce the intensity of light; (2) use slower shutter speed; and (3) use larger aperture. We shall discuss each of these situation briefly below. Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Neutral density meaningnd filter

Aug 29, 2014 — Hello Forum, The numerical aperture NA of a lens is usually a parameter (adimensional) that indicates the lens ability to collect light.

Polarization Dependent Loss (PDL) is the maximum (peak to peak) variation in insertion loss as the input polarization varies over all its states, expressed in dB.

Recall that the thick red line indicates a constant exposure value (i.e., EV). To achieve this "correct" exposure, there are many different aperture-shutter speed combinations. After adding a ND filter, the exposure value is reduced because there is less light passing through the lens. This is shown as a dashed line in the above figure. Thus, if we want to keep the original shutter speed (without using a ND filter), aperture has to be wider; or, if we want to keep the original aperture, shutter speed must be slower. Different ND filter manufacture many use a different way to indicate the amount of light a ND filter can reduce. There are two typical systems as shown below: Density 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Reduction by f-stops 1/3 2/3 1 1 1/3 1 2/3 2 2 1/3 2 2/3 3 3 1/3 6 2/3 10 13 1/3 For example, Tiffen and B+W have 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 ND filters for reducing one, two and three stops of light. Hoya, on the other hand, uses 2×, 4× and 8× to indicate reducing 1 (i.e. 2=21), 2 (i.e., 4=22), and 3 (i.e., 8=23) stops. The two ND filters come with Nikon's Coolpack are of ND4 and ND8 type, which means they reduce two and three stops, respectively. All ND filters are gray in color. The deeper the color, the stronger the effect (i.e., reducing more light). The following shows Nikon's ND4 (font) and ND8 (rear) filters. From the shadows, it is clear that a ND8 blocks more light than a ND4 does. Based on this understanding, ND filters help us in at least three situations: (1) reduce the intensity of light; (2) use slower shutter speed; and (3) use larger aperture. We shall discuss each of these situation briefly below. Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Aputure F10 Fresnel Up to 29300+ lux @ 3 Meters with the Aputure LS 600d Pro (15° Spot Beam Angle) 15°-45° Spot-Flood Variable Beam Angle 10" (250mm)…

Neutral densityfilter chart

Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Birefringence is a term used to describe a phenomenon that occurs in certain types of materials, in which light is split into two different paths. This phenomenon occurs because these materials have different indices of refraction, depending on the polarization direction of light.

Neutral DensityFilter thorlabs

All ND filters are gray in color. The deeper the color, the stronger the effect (i.e., reducing more light). The following shows Nikon's ND4 (font) and ND8 (rear) filters. From the shadows, it is clear that a ND8 blocks more light than a ND4 does. Based on this understanding, ND filters help us in at least three situations: (1) reduce the intensity of light; (2) use slower shutter speed; and (3) use larger aperture. We shall discuss each of these situation briefly below. Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

ND filtermeaning

Based on this understanding, ND filters help us in at least three situations: (1) reduce the intensity of light; (2) use slower shutter speed; and (3) use larger aperture. We shall discuss each of these situation briefly below. Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

The maximum difference in the mode propagation times due to this dispersion is called Differential Group Delay (DGD), whose unit is typically given in picoseconds. Because of its dynamic properties, PMD does not have a single, fixed value for a given section of fiber, but has a distribution of DGD values over time. The probability of a DGD with a certain value at any particular time follows the Maxwellian distribution shown in Figure 2. As an approximation, the maximum instantaneous DGD is about 3.2 times the average DGD of a fiber

Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Polarization Extinction Ratio (PER) is the ratio of the minimum polarized power and the maximum polarized power, expressed in dB. Any polarization component will specify this value as a specification.

The intensity pattern is called the "Airy Disk". The main features are shown in the diagram on the right. The first minimum occurs at an angle θ = 1.22λ/D ...

Jun 27, 2023 — The Standard lens option includes DuraClear™, a premium anti-reflective treatment that lets in 99% of available light and improves clarity and ...

Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

The second approach is based on the Babinet-Soleil Compensator. An all-fiber polarization controller based on this technique is shown in Figure 4. The device comprises a fiber squeezer that rotates around the optical fiber. Applying a pressure to the fiber produces a linear birefringence, effectively creating a fiber wave plate whose retardation varies with the pressure. Simple squeeze-and-turn operations can generate any desired polarization state from any arbitrary input polarization

Piezoelectric actuators drive the fiber squeezers for high speed. Because it is an all-fiber device, it has no back reflection and has extremely low insertion loss and polarization-dependent loss. All new 25xxP Series Polarization Control instruments employ the fiber squeeze technique.

Polarization controllers also can be made with multiple free-space wave plates oriented 45° from each other. An all-fiber device based on the same operation principle would reduce the insertion loss and cost. The retardation of each wave plate components varies with the pressure of each fiber squeezer. The challenge is making the device reliable, compact and cost-effective.

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For example, Tiffen and B+W have 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 ND filters for reducing one, two and three stops of light. Hoya, on the other hand, uses 2×, 4× and 8× to indicate reducing 1 (i.e. 2=21), 2 (i.e., 4=22), and 3 (i.e., 8=23) stops. The two ND filters come with Nikon's Coolpack are of ND4 and ND8 type, which means they reduce two and three stops, respectively. All ND filters are gray in color. The deeper the color, the stronger the effect (i.e., reducing more light). The following shows Nikon's ND4 (font) and ND8 (rear) filters. From the shadows, it is clear that a ND8 blocks more light than a ND4 does. Based on this understanding, ND filters help us in at least three situations: (1) reduce the intensity of light; (2) use slower shutter speed; and (3) use larger aperture. We shall discuss each of these situation briefly below. Reducing the Intensity of Light Nikon Coolpix 950, 990 and 995 have smallest aperture (resp., fastest shutter speed) f11.4, f11 and f10.3 (resp., 1/750, 1/1000 and 1/2000). Occasionally, it is possible that a correct exposure cannot be achieved even with the smallest aperture and fastest shutter speed. In such cases, ND filters become useful, because they can reduce the intensity of the light so that a photo can be taken within the limit of your camera. This is actually a common situation when film cameras and high speed films are used. Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

A specialty fiber called the Polarization Maintaining (PM) Fiber intentionally creates consistent birefringence pattern along its length, prohibiting coupling between the two orthogonal polarization directions. In any design, the geometry of the fiber and the materials used create a large amount of stress in one direction, and thus create high birefringence compared to that generated by the random birefringence. There are a number of designs available commercially, using various stress inducing architectures, such as Panda and Bow Tie PM Fibers available with various cut-off wavelengths.

Neutral DensityFilter

This adapter ring is crafted from durable metal alloy, ensuring a robust and reliable connection for your microscope setup. The inner and outer sizes are ...

ND Filter for Mobile

The #11 Green (1) Filter from Tiffen is a filter designed to build contrast in black and white photography. When using this filter for portraiture in the ...

Using Slower Shutter Speed Reducing the intensity of light means we can either use a slower shutter speed or a larger aperture. A slower shutter speed can cause moving objects blurred (i.e., motion blur) which creates a sense of motion. The following images were taken using the Aperture-Priority Mode (950, 990 and 995). The aperture was set to F2.8, the largest possible aperture, so that shutter speed can be reduced properly. The left image below was taken without a ND filter, and, as you can see, the truck (running about 40 miles) is frozen. Adding a ND4 filter to reduce 2 stops (i.e., slowing the shutter speed to a quarter of that used for the left image), the vehicle shows motion blur (middle image below). Motion blur becomes even more significant if ND8 is used instead of ND4 (right image below) which reduces the shutter speed to 1/8 of that used for the left image. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image Note that a number of ND filters can be stacked up to further reduce the intensity of light. The following image was taken by using both the ND4 and ND8 filters. This reduces the intensity of light to 1/32 (i.e., 5=2+3 stops) of the original. Now motion blur is so obvious even in a small image. With both ND4 and ND8 filters Click on the icon to see a larger image Using Larger Aperture Since ND filters reduce the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube, they can be used to open up the aperture while keep the shutter speed the same. Keep in mind that a larger aperture produces a shallower Depth of Field (950, 990 and 995). The following images were all taken with a shutter speed of 1/30 second. The left one did not use a ND filter and the aperture used was F10.7. As you can see, the background is only blurred a little, and the subject seems part of the background. Adding a ND4 filter reduces the aperture to F5.4. The background is further blurred and the subject is isolated from the background. Using the ND8 filter reduces the aperture to F3.9. Now the subject is well isolated from the background! Moreover, it shows a sense of distance. While we can stack both ND4 and ND8 filters together, since the aperture of your camera is not large enough, doing so will produce underexposure images. Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

Without ND With ND4 filter With ND8 filter Click on the icon to see a larger image

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A beam of light can be thought of as being composed of two orthogonal electrical vector field components that vary in amplitude and frequency. Polarized light occurs when these two components differ in phase or amplitude. Polarization in optical fiber has been extensively studied and a variety of methods are available to either minimize or exploit the phenomenon. In this tutorial, basic principles and technical background are introduced to help explain how the polarization in fiber optics works.

The Poincare sphere is one of the conventional ways of describing the polarization and changes in polarization of a propagating electromagnetic wave. It provides a convenient way of predicting how any given retarder will change the polarization form. Any given polarization state corresponds to a unique point on the sphere. The two poles of the sphere represent left and right-hand circularly polarized light. Points on the equator indicate linear polarizations. All other points on the sphere represent elliptical polarization states. An arbitrarily chosen point H on the equator designates horizontal linear polarization, and the diametrically opposite point V designates vertical linear polarization

Controlling the polarization state in optical fiber is similar to the free space control using waveplates via phase changes in the two orthogonal states of polarization. In general, three configurations are commonly used.