The simplest designs are usually called ‘achromat objectives’ and contain only a front lens and a couple of achromatic doublets to correct for aberrations. On the other hand, we have Apochromat microscope objectives in which several apochromatic doublets are used, in addition to some achromats for a better image quality. For a better explanation of the difference between achromatic and apochromatic lenses, please read the linked articles.

Microscope objective lenses are a crucial part of a microscope, responsible for magnifying the specimen being observed. They are used to gather light from the object being observed and focus the light rays to produce a real image. The objective lens is one of the most important parts of a microscope, as it determines the microscope’s basic performance and function [3].

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Hyper-radial lenses were first proposed by the Scottish engineer Thomas Stevenson of the Northern Lighthouse Board in 1869. The need for larger lenses was deemed necessary to maintain brightness as the fuel source/burning apparatus for lighthouse lanterns changed from oil and wicks to more modern fuels such as kerosene, coal gas and electricity. A series of tests was conducted at South Foreland Lighthouse in Kent, UK, in 1884-85 to determine the most proficient lens design and fuel.

Low powerobjective microscope function

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The first prototype hyper-radial lens was produced by the F Barbier Company of Paris, France, in 1885 for use in the trials at South Foreland (now on display at the National Museum of Scotland). The first hyper-radial to be lit in a lighthouse was created by West Midlands glassmakers, Chance Brothers Co (UK) in 1887.

Condensermicroscope function

In conclusion, microscope objective lenses are an essential part of a microscope and are used to magnify the specimen being observed. They consist of several components that work together to produce a clear image, and their magnification can vary depending on the intended use of the microscope.

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In cases where the objective is not meant to be used in infinity corrected microscopes, there will be a number, usually 160) referring to the length of the microscope tube. Some microscope objectives will show the letters “DIN” which stands for “Deutsche Industrial Normen.” that sets a length of 160 mm.

Objectivelensfunction

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High powerobjective microscope function

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Typesof objective lenses

Of the 33 lenses installed, only a handful are thought to remain intact and still in situ in their lighthouses to this day including Makapu'u Point in Hawaii, USA (installed in 1887), Cabo de Santa Marta in Brazil (installed in 1891), Hyskeir in Scotland's Inner Hebrides, UK (installed in 1904) and Cape Race in Newfoundland, Canada (installed in 1907).

Objective lenses can have just a couple of lens elements, (an achromat and simple lens, for example) or multiple groups of elements. Even two microscope objectives with the same magnification can have a completely different design, as shown in Figure 1.

The microscope objective will show the manufacturer (not shown in the figure), followed by the type of aberration correction; in our image, we have a “Plan Achromat” which produces a flat surface at the image plane and achromat for the type of chromatic aberration.

Ocular lensmicroscope function

Although lighthouses are less of a necessity in modern times, thanks to developments in GPS, radar and communication technology, Fresnel lenses still have many applications in scientific research and everyday technology including cameras, solar panels, spotlights, traffic lights and ATM machines to name just a few.

Seeking to improve the visibility and range of lighthouse beams, French physicist and civil engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel developed a new type of lens in the early 19th century that used both refraction and reflection to drastically reduce light wastage (using about 80% of available light). The first of these lenses to be installed was at Cordouan Lighthouse (built in 1611) in the Gironde Estuary off western France, which was activated on 25 July 1823. It could be seen more than 20 miles (37 km) out at sea.

Fresnel developed a series of lenses that were divided into six "orders" based on size and focal length. The largest that he developed, known as 1st-class lenses, stood about 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) tall and could project light as far as 26 mi (42 km) out to sea.

Where R is the resolution, ? is the light wavelength, n is the refractive index, and θ is the half angle of the acceptance light cone (NA is the numerical angle defined as sin(θ)). For example, a microscope objective that works with visible light, with air surrounding the sample, and an acceptance half-angle cone of 72-degrees, will have a minimum resolution of 256 nm. If we surround the sample in a liquid with a refractive index of 1.5, our resolution will improve to 171 nm.

Stage clipsmicroscope function

Having proven their success, Fresnel lenses were adopted as the standard for all lighthouses in the decades that followed. The first Fresnel lens fitted in a US lighthouse was Navesink Lighthouse in New Jersey in 1841.

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The magnification of the objective lens can vary, depending on the intended use of the microscope. For example, objective lenses for biological applications typically range from 4x to 100x, while those used for metallurgical applications can range up to 200x or more [1].

The largest type of lens ever to be fitted in lighthouses were known as "hyper-radials" or "hyper-radiants" with a focal length of 1,330 mm (52.4 in); these giant glass lenses measured up to 7 m (23 ft) tall and could weigh in excess of 10 tonnes (11 US tons). A supersized version of the existing Fresnel lens, they were first conceived of in the mid-19th century with the earliest prototype developed in 1885. The first hyper-radial in operation was in the Tory Island Lighthouse in Ireland in 1887. In all, only 33 hyper-radial lenses were ever installed (in 31 lighthouses).

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Most off the shelf microscope objectives have several body markings to better identify them. Typical markings can be seen in Figure 2.

In the previous calculation, I assumed an angle of acceptance of 72-degrees with a reasonable upper limit when working with air (that angle gives us a NA of 0.95). However, by immersing the sample and microscope in oil or another liquid, it is possible to have a larger NA. This affects not only the resolution of our image but also its brightness (the brightness is calculated as the square of its NA).

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Stagemicroscope function

Another specification can be “Plan Fluor” for fluorite and “APO” for apochromatic. Next we have the magnification, numerical aperture, and the immersion medium. As mentioned before, dry objective lenses usually have a NA no larger than 0.95, but that number can be considerably higher in immerse objectives. We next have an infinity symbol, meaning that the lens is infinity corrected.

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Objective lenses for microscopes typically have several components, including the front lens, the rear lens, the aperture, the lens barrel, and the thread. Each component plays an important role in determining the objective’s performance. For example, the aperture determines the resolution and depth of field of the objective lens, while the thread allows the objective to be attached to the microscope.

There are three design variables that can help us calculate the microscope objective resolution: the system wavelength, the light cone captured by the objective (also known as numerical aperture), and the refractive index between the first lens of the objective and the sample. This can be expressed by the following formula:

In previous entries, we have talked about the design of scanning microscopes, infinity corrected microscopes, confocal microscope design, and Koehler illumination systems-a common illumination system in microscopes. The most essential microscope element in a borescope design is the objective lens.

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