19. Our unique, direct core-to-top bonding improves the thermal conductivity of the core to the outside environment, reducing the "thermal relaxation time" for the top.

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Individual CleanTop cups are epoxy-bonded under each tapped hole after it is tapped and cleaned. Cups are made from chemically resistant nylon 6, and stainless steel (304 alloy) cups are available. Holes are now tapped and countersunk prior to adding the cups to allow the machined top sheet to be thoroughly cleaned with open, rather than blind, holes prior to bonding. The top plate is processed through a custom TMC industrial cleaning center where a high pressure, high temperature cleaning solution is forced through each threaded hole, completely clearing any machining or tapping debris. Several rinse and dry cycles ensure an essentially "sterilized" top surface prior to bonding the cups.

All steel construction. No particle board sidewalls or plastic layer between top skin and honeycomb core. Assures maximum strength and structural integrity

Scientific Grade: corner compliance data shows higher peak compliance value than the Research Grade. Compliance was measured on a 48 x 96 x 12 in. table.

Since, we know that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection (according to the law of reflection), the angle of reflection can be easily calculated once angle of incidence is known.

In this article, we will learn more about what the angle of Incidence is, the formula for the angle of incidence, examples related to the angle of incidence, the difference between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection, and some of the frequently asked questions related to it.

8. Standard mounting holes in TMC tops are tapped, either 1/4–20 on 1 in. centers or M6 on 25 mm centers. Imperial 1/4-20 tapped holes on 1 in. staggered centers and metric M6 on 25mm staggered centers are available at a nominal additional fee. Custom patterns, including large through-holes for cables, etc., are easily accomplished with our multiple 2,000-watt laser machining centers.

TMC has long adhered to the philosophy that dry damping of an optical top is preferable to oil-based dampers. Oil's characteristics can change over time and hidden oil reservoirs are always in danger of being pierced by an end-user customizing his system.

CleanTop Performance series have three levels of damping performance as well as a multitude of configuration options for a variety of use cases. Individual tables can even be mechanically coupled in order to create complex rigid table shapes without loss of damping performance.

Thermal stability. The CleanTop all steel construction assures materials of identical coefficient of thermal expansion ensuring optimal thermal stability.

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4. Additionally, to avoid excessive epoxy being squeezed into the plastic cups, imitative designs use only the thinnest layer of epoxy between the top skin and plastic layer. The thinness of this layer can produce “voids” when the top is bonded by trapping air, significantly weakening the bond.

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Steel to steel to steel. CleanTop achieves a spill-proof core with only two bonding layers: top skin to core and core to bottom skin. Imitations must add a third bonding layer which weakens the structure: top skin to plastic layer, plastic layer to core, and core to bottom skin.

TMC optical tops have guaranteed performance levels which are unsurpassed. In addition, with three levels of broadband damping and three environmental choices, TMC offers the most flexibility in choosing a performance level. Guaranteed maximum compliance levels for the maximum damping level are tabulated in the plots below. The standard damping level offers compliance levels a factor of four times higher than those tabulated. The minimum damping level is only recommended for non-sensitive applications. The curves summarize the guaranteed performance levels of TMC optical tops. In addition, table top corner compliance data are presented for the three damping levels available. Data were acquired by impact testing, using a one-pound calibrated hammer, accelerometer, and dual-channel spectrum analyzer. As these examples demonstrate, actual measured performance is often considerably better than our guaranteed performance.

Angle of incidenceand refraction

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18. Structural damping of TMC tops is accomplished using broadband mass dampers which are separate from the core, do not permit hysteresis or creep of the top, and do not detract from the top’s stiffness.

20. Our skins, core, sidewalls and dampers are all made of steel and therefore have the same coefficient of thermal expansion. Thus, even in situations with repeated temperature cycling, a TMC top expands and contracts as a whole, assuring structural integrity and preventing long-term internal stress buildup.

Angle of incidenceaviation

14. TMC’s honeycomb core is a closed-cell structure with basic cell size of 0.5 in.2 (3 cm2), giving a core density of 13-14 lbs/ft3 (300 kg/m3), significantly greater than others on the market. The effective core density is 18-20 (16 lbs./ft3) including sidewalls and dampers.

Smallest core cell size, highest core density. The CleanTop design does not require enlarging the steel honeycomb core cell size because CleanTop cups are cylindrical, not conical as found in plastic layer designs. CleanTop's average cell size of 0.5 in.(2) is at least 50% smaller than that achieved with plastic layer designs assuring the highest stiffness and greatest core-to-skin bonding contact area

Angle of incidencevsangle ofattack

3. CleanTop achieves a spillproof core with only two bonding layers: top skin to core and core to bottom skin. Imitations must add a third bonding layer, which severely weakens the structure: top skin to plastic layer, plastic layer to core, and core to bottom skin.

Angle ofreflection

12. TMC’s broadband dry damping approach is the only logical one for an optical top. Others use "tuned" dampers which only work on a discrete frequency. Structural resonances are not discrete and therefore not eliminated but rather "split" into two resonances by tuned dampers.

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2.TMC’s design does not require enlarging core cell size because CleanTop cups are cylindrical, not conical like molded plastic membrane cavities. Our average cell size of 0.5 in.2 (3 cm2) is at least 50% smaller than molded cavity top designs, assuring the highest stiffness and greatest core-to-skin bonding contact area.

11. TMC mounting holes are slightly countersunk to remove ridges and burrs. Every TMC mounting screw can be finger-tightened at first insertion – no wrench is needed.

9. All TMC mounting holes are in register with open cells in the honeycomb core (a given with CleanTop® but not necessarily with other designs). This assures that the core is not damaged by subsequent drilling and tapping during manufacture, that the structural integrity of the assembly is maintained, and that all mounting screws can be inserted to full depth without obstruction. TMC registered holes (shown without CleanTop® cups.) (top), Competitive non-registered holes (bottom).

Angle of incidencesymbol

7. Top surfaces of TMC tops are lightly sanded with an orbital pattern to remove burrs and provide a non-glare, non-reflecting finish, without inducing internal stress.

TMC's optical tables and isolation systems offer industry-leading performance and rigidity thanks to an all-steel construction and the highest core density and smallest honeycomb cell area on the market.

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For less vibration-sensitive applications we have rigid non-isolating legs, while ultra-sensitive equipment will benefit from our STACIS piezoelectric vibration cancellation technology solutions, such as LaserTable-Base.

Traditionally our optical tables are a great match with our Micro-g pneumatic vibration isolation systems, which provide the best balance between cost and performance.

Our approach to damping of structural resonances has consistently been based on a "broadband damping" approach. "Tuned damping," or using a tuned mass-damper to resonate out-of-phase with a top's bending mode, is a risky approach. First, it assumes the damper can be set to exactly coincide with the resonant frequency of the top. An optical top's resonant frequency will vary based on load, distribution of load, temperature, and even the presence of the dampers themselves. Therefore, in practice, it is difficult to tune the dampers to the top's resonance. Furthermore, it assumes that only the lowest resonant frequency requires damping when many secondary bending and twisting modes require attention.

Laboratory Grade: Corner compliance data shows higher amplification at the table's resonant frequency. Compliance was measured on a 48 x 96 x 12 in. table.

5. TMC employs a proprietary process to clean our machined skins to a level that is virtually “sterilized.” This ensures the cleanest threaded holes and superb epoxy bonding. Furthermore, the cleaning station is in an entranceway to a clean, finishing building so that the cleaned top never sees a heavy, industrial machining environment. In the CleanTop® design, no machining, grinding or sanding of any kind is performed subsequent to this cleaning process.

On a plane mirror, the ray of light incident normally indicates that the angle of incidence is 0° and not 90°. As a result, there is no angle of reflection (0°).

Research Grade: corner compliance data measures the displacement of the table in response to impact by a calibrated hammer. The lack of response below 300 Hz is indicative of extremely high damping and excellent overall structural performance. Compliance was measured on a 48 x 96 x 12 in. table.

TMC's proprietary broadband damping techniques are the most effective way to damp an optical top. This approach works over the entire frequency range of interest, dissipating energy at the top's primary, secondary, and higher resonant frequencies. In addition, performance will not be compromised by adding weight to the top.

Angle of incidenceformula

TMC's CleanTops are engineered using the most advanced methods for structural analysis and design. The Operational Deflection Shape shown above was measured using a technique called Laser Scanning Vibrometry (LSV). LSV is among the most sensitive and most accurate non-contact vibration measurement techniques commercially available. It uses the laser doppler effect to measure the behavior of the entire table rather than the behavior one discrete point.

1. Sidewalls of TMC tops are 0.075 in. (2 mm) thick, damped, cold-rolled formed steel (see center photo, above), unlike the moisture-absorbing particle board favored by other manufacturers, presumably for its low cost. In addition, steel provides structural integrity unattainable with particle board sidewalls.

17. The stainless steel version of TMC’s CleanTop cups offers the ultimate in an unbroken stainless steel barrier. This design renders the top immune to even repeated spills of the most corrosive liquids.

13. TMC’s honeycomb core is made of 0.010 in. (0.25 mm) thick steel, work-hardened and plated to prevent corrosion and assure years of service. Steel honeycomb is the ideal material for optical tops since the Young’s modulus of steel is three times that of aluminum.

10. Every hole in a TMC top is lead-screw-tapped, the most precise method known, and there are no inserts. Inserts can loosen, and top skins can be distorted when inserts are pressed into undersized holes.

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6. TMC top skins are stretcher-leveled, stress-relieved, and pressure-bonded against a precision-lapped granite plate, without subsequent grinding—avoiding heat and stress. The finished top is flat within ±0.005 in. (0.13 mm) within the entire tapped hole pattern, regardless of top size, guaranteed.      TMC top skin (above) and competitive design top skin (below) after grinding.

Angle of incidencewing

TMC's CleanTop Optical Top is the best method yet for providing a spill-proof, clean, precise, and corrosion resistant optical top with unmatched structural performance. CleanTop is now a standard feature of all TMC optical tops.

The System 1 optical table support systems (sold separately) have the same configuration flexibility and unparalleled vibration isolation performance.

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The relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction is explained through Snell's law (which is known as the law of refraction), which states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of refraction and angle of incidence is always constant and equal to the ratio of phase velocities of the two mediums it is passing through.

15. Our honeycomb structures are totally TMC-manufactured, assuring reduced manufacturing cost, top quality, and dimensional precision.

Angle of incidencePhysics

The relation between the angle of Incidence and the angle of refraction can be best understood through Snell's Law which says that the ratio between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction is always a constant and equal to the ratio of phase velocities of the two mediums it is passing through.

Angle of incidence is the angle created between a ray propagating on a surface and the line normal to the point of occurrence on the same surface. The manner in which the light is reflected back to the observer after it strikes a mirror is an excellent demonstration of how reflection works.

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More importantly, the notion of incorporating a tuned mass-damper to suppress a structural resonance is a flawed one. Tuned damping is only effective in damping discrete resonances and is misapplied when used to damp a broadband structural resonance. In simple terms, a tuned damper "splits" a structural resonance into two resonances by creating a coupled mass system.

Example 1. Find the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection for the ray of light striking the plane reflecting surface at 60°.

At the point of incidence, two angles are formed by the incident ray and the reflected ray, viz., the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.

16. The core, skins, and sidewalls of TMC tops are rigidly and permanently bonded with specially formulated high-strength epoxy, which has no viscoelastic creep or hysteresis. The overall shear modulus of TMC’s finished, bonded core is 275,000 psi (19,300 kg/cm2).

As the angle between the incident ray and the mirror increases, the angle of reflection decreases. This is caused by the incidence's glancing angle which is the angle created between the incident ray and the mirror. As, a decrease in incidence angle is the result of an increase in glancing angle. As we know that the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal, the reflection angle gets decreased.