Other exciting applications are extensions of measurements normally performed at synchrotrons into laboratory or clinical settings because of the increased efficiency of source utilization.

Because x rays, like all light, are also waves, there can be interference effects. The wavelength of x-rays is on the order of 0.1 nanometer, similar to the spacing between atoms in solids, so there are complex interference effects, called diffraction, when x rays are passed into solids.

The angle of incidence for the ray near one edge increases with tube diameter. The requirement that the incident angles remain less than the critical angle necessitates the use of tiny tubes. Polycapillary fibers have tube diameters that are much smaller than the fiber diameter, while still maintaining high open area.

The optical path length is the distance traveled in an optical system by light. For a series of continuous layers with index of refraction n(s) as a ...

The Center for X-ray Optics specializes in developing x-ray techniques and technology for a variety of applications. A major recent emphasis is on the development of simple techniques to bring practical x-ray phase imaging to clinical and industrial settings. The center was founded in 1991 as a collection of faculty, postdoctoral researchers, graduate and undergraduate students and international collaborators studying the properties and application of x-ray and neutron optics.

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Polycapillary optics can control x rays over a broad range of angles and energies and have been used as focusing collectors for x-ray astronomy to produce large area collimated beams for wafer analysis, and to provide small focused beams for protein crystallography with low power x-ray sources.

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The Center for X-ray Optics now houses a half dozen x-ray beam enclosures, including several microfocus sources, with copper, molybdenum and tungsten tubes, high resolution energy sensitive and imaging detectors, and two high power rotating anode systems used for both imaging and crystallography experiments.

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Polycapillary optics are arrays of hollow glass tubes used to collect, focus, and redirect x-ray and neutron beams. X-rays striking the interior of these hollow channels at grazing incidence are guided along the channel by total external reflection in a process similar to the way fiber optics guide light.

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However, for x rays, the index for glass is actually very slightly less than that of air or vacuum. This means that the ray bends very slightly toward the glass surface. If the x ray hits the surface at a special, very small angle called the critical angle, the ray in the glass will be parallel to the surface.

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In the early 1980's polycapillary optics, arrays of thousands of hollow glass tubes, were invented in Russiaby Kumakhov and coworkers. In 1991, the Institute for Roentgen Optics in Moscow, and the Center for X-ray Optics in Albany were jointly founded to purse the study of these and other x-ray optics.

For incident angles less than the critical angle, there is no way to have a ray in the glass, so the x ray is totally reflected. This principle has been used for many years to make x-ray mirrors. However the critical angle is usually less than one tenth of one degree, and so the mirror has to be very large and very flat to reflect a large x-ray beam.

Because most x-ray creation techniques generate x rays which diverge away from their source like light from a light bulb, capturing and collimating, or focusing, x-rays is helpful.

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This is a disadvantage if it is desirable to keep most of the intensity from a typical source, which emits a large range of wavelengths, but an advantage for applications in which it is desirable to use a beam of a single wavelength (called monochromatic, since for visible light a single wavelength has a single color).

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The reflection of x-rays, which are reflected down the length of the capillary, is governed by the critical angle, which is approximately 1.5 mrad or 0.1° at 20 keV and is inversely proportional to photon energy. X-rays are transmitted down in hollow glass tubes with high efficiency so long as the incidence angles are kept smaller than the critical angle.

The bending of light by a lens is described by Snell's law, which tells us that when light travels from a material of low index, like air, to a material of higher index, like glass, it bends, or refracts, away from the glass surface.

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They are also being developed for a number of medical applications, including the removal of Comptonscattering with the resultant improvement in contrast and resolution in mammography, the production of monochromatic parallel beams for high contrast imaging in a clinical setting, and the detection and localization of radioactive tracers in prostate cancer.

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The Center for X-ray Optics has made use of flat crystal optics since its inception and has been studying curved crystal optics since 2001.

Focusing or collecting effects come from the overlap of the beams from thousands of capillary channels, rather than from the action within a single tube. As for single bore capillaries, x rays can be transmitted down a curved hollow tube as long as the tube is small enough and bent gently enough to keep the angles of incidence less than the critical angle for total reflection, #c.

Theoretical development and extensive computer modeling are also a large part of the research program, as well as collaborations with several synchrotron beam lines and neutron sources.

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Typical channel sizes are between 2 and 12 mm. Thousands of such fibers are strung through lithographically produced metal grids to produce a multifiber lens. Alternatively, a larger diameter polycapillary fiber can be shaped into a one-piece, monolithic, optic.

X rays have been very important in many areas of science and technology since their discovery. The first medical radiograph was made in 1896, just one year after their discovery by Roentgen.

This is routinely used to reflect x rays at much high angles than can be achieved by grazing incidence total reflection. However, because it is an interference effect, a crystal "mirror" only works for a single wavelength.

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X-ray optics seek to overcome these challenges through the use of reflective optics, polycapillary optics and crystal optics techniques.

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The same principle has been used since the 1920s to bounce x rays down hollow glass tubes. Of course a single tube can only catch a very small part of the x-ray beam.

Facilities include a 1200 sq ft laboratory housing multiple x-ray beam lines consisting of rotating anode or microfocus x-ray sources with copper, molydenum and tungsten targets, motion control systems for optic alignment and testing, and high resolution energy sensitive or imaging detectors.

However, because x-rays easily penetrate most objects (even people), they simply pass through normal lenses, hardly bending at all.