Yet another application is shooting a waterfall in a wooded setting. With trees blocking the sun, the light reaching the camera sensor is more subdued. You might achieve the effect of water motion blur with 10-15 second exposure using a 2-stop or 4-stop ND filter.

◄ 4.8.2. Foucault test   ▐    4.8.4. Waineo null test ►   4.8.3. Ronchi test If a grating consisting of successive opaque and transparent straight strips is placed in the light converging to, or diverging from a point-object image, close to the point of convergence, the eye positioned at the receiving end will see it projected at the aperture, greatly magnified. The width of projected strips is determined by their separation from the focus: the closer they are to it, the wider their projection. Thus, in the absence of aberrations, grating projection consists of straight dark and light bands across the aperture. Any significant local, zonal or figure error will cause defocus and show as a detectable bend deformation (FIG. 54). At least that was what Vasco Ronchi hoped for when he decided to take a close look at the testing potential of this setup back in the 1920s. After detailed analysis, he concluded that such test, at least in its simple visual/geometric form, is not sufficiently accurate for astronomical optics. Simple geometrical analysis gives basic information on the potential and limitations of the Ronchi test. FIGURE 54: LEFT: For the central half-line of Ronchi grating, the apparent geometrical width To projected from the correct (paraxial) focus (F) onto mirror will relate to the width T projected from the aberrated (zonal) focus (F') as To/T=(1/s)/[1/(s-Δ)]=1-(Δ/s), with s being the grating-to-correct-focus separation, and Δ the amount of local, zonal, or figure (conic) defocus. The inverse value, the relative line thickness at the height of aberrated zone vs. central line width is given by s/(s-Δ). When defocus Δ=0, the relative line thickness is constant (1), and line deformation is 0. Thus the deformation can be written as δ=[s/(s-Δ)]-1=Δ/(s-Δ). The sign for both, s and Δ, is relative to paraxial focus; on the above illustration they are both positive, since above the zero at the focus location. If the zone would focus farther than paraxial focus, Δ would become negative (with the zonal line width shrinking), and so would s for the grating outside of focus. For defocus Δ much smaller than grating separation s, as is usually the case, line deformation δ is well approximated by δ~Δ/s. This applies to the vertical mid-pattern segment; for pattern portion toward either side, same nominal deformation affects increasingly shorter lines, becoming effectively greater. given by dividing the relative width of deformation Δ/s by its relative (normalized to 1 for pattern diameter) linear extension h, thus δ=Δ/sh. Illustration top left (spherical under-correction, pattern generated by John Upton's RonWin20) shows a pattern resulting from the outer zones focusing shorter, with their foci forming closer to the grating; as a result, grating projection widens toward the edges, with the bands seemingly diverging. Should the outer zone focus increasingly longer than the center (over-correction), the bands would be narrowing toward the edges.      With the grating-to-focus separation s related to the number of lines per mm N (each line consists of an opaque and transparent strip), the number of intercepted lines L and focal ratio F as s=(L/N)F, the relative geometric line deformation is given by: δ=ΔN/hLF. The relation shows that for given nominal defocus, the degree of deformation - and test sensitivity - increases with the grating line density N and decreases with the number of intercepted lines L, linear extension h and focal ratio F (as expected, since the wider cone of larger relative aperture allows moving the grating closer to the focus for given grating density and number of intercepted lines). This, in general, makes errors with smaller extension easier to detect, but the practical limit to this type of sensitivity is set well above the nominal visual threshold of small detail resolution (also varies with the amount of defocus), due to the light/dark boundaries of the projected pattern being blurred by diffraction effects. Attempts have been made to minimize diffraction effects using line pattern of unequal (still periodic) spacing, in order to make efficient use of denser Ronchi gratings; reportedly, it can significantly increase test sensitivity. However, majority of the amateurs still uses relatively coarse gratings, mainly between 100 and 150 lines per inch (about 4 to 6 lines per mm).       Due to its different ray geometry, the apparent semi-line width along the horizontal pattern axis increases at a faster rate toward the edge than for the central half-line. If n is the semi-line's ordinal number, beginning from 0 for the center, its width relative to that of the central semi-line along the horizontal axis is given by [sn/(s-Δ2)]-s(n-1)/(s-ΔΔ), where Δ2 and ΔΔ are the defocus values for the ray reflected past the outer, and past the inner semi-line's edge , respectively. The width increases vertically, roughly at a similar linear rate as for the central semi-line.   RIGHT:  Ronchi pattern simulations for 300mm f/5 mirror with conics in the range of 0.5 (oblate ellipsoid) to -1.5 (hyperboloid), for 4 lines per mm grating (~100 lines per inch), and for given Ronchi grating locations inside (negative values) and outside of mirror's center of curvature.  Note how the number of intercepted lines decreases inside focus with undercorrection, and increases with overcorrection, the opposite being the case outside of focus. This is a consequence of the defocus between inner and outer mirror areas (i.e. change in separation between the foci of outer zones vs. paraxial focus/c.o.c.) increasing with the conic. While the test is quick and convenient for nulling spherical surface, it becomes much more involved in determining the conic of aspherized surfaces. Due to the high level of aberrations present, changes in pattern deformation are hard to distinguish, requiring use of comparison patterns for specific grating locations. −−− Above consideration was focused on the geometric aspect of the Ronchi test. It is sufficiently accurate for low-to-medium grating density, commonly used by the amateurs, since the effects of wave interference - i.e. diffraction - between the light columns emitted from the bright strips at the Ronchi ruling  is relatively low. At high grating densities, however, diffraction effects become more pronounced. As illustration below shows, Ronchi ruling brakes up the converging beam into separated columns of light; in terms of pupil, it brakes the uniform circular pupil into a series of separated apertures. Eye lens is placed approximately in the focal zone, and since the light uses central parts of the eye, little refraction takes place. Converging columns of light fall onto the retina, creating image of the pattern. But light diffracted from the openings on the ruling spreads wider than what the converging cones outlined by the rays suggest, and these diffracted waves interfere at the retina, blurring the edges. The denser grating, the wider diffracting spread, and the more intrusive to image integrity it becomes. Simplified illustration of the intensity distribution of the diffraction image of the grating (rightmost) indicates gradual transition from bright to dark zone, with the apparent width of bright line determined by the eye brightness threshold (dashed). More diffracted energy from interfering diffracting orders raises minimas and brightens dark lines, reducing contrast, and/or creates subsidiary (lower-level) maximas ("ringing" edges), reducing test sensitivity.   Test sensitivity to this type of surface deformation can be approximated from the fact that the geometric line width changes in proportion to Δ/s, i.e. ratio of zonal defocus (with respect to paraxial focus) vs. grid-to-paraxial-focus separation. In other words, assuming that the shape of a local, or zonal surface deformation can be approximated around local radius of curvature RΔ focusing at i+Δ, i being the vertex surface-to-correct-focus separation, the radius in collimated light (object at infinity) is RΔ~2(i+Δ)=2(f+Δ), and for the object at the center of curvature as RΔ~R+Δ. Since the correct radius is R=2i=2f (f being the focal length), the surface error is approximated by the difference between the depth of the proper and deviated radius for the relative linear extension of surface deviation h, given by [(1/RΔ)-(1/R)]h2. Surface deviations of relatively small linear extension (local errors) double in the wavefront. As the relation δ=ΔN/hLF implies, sensitivity of the Ronchi test to smaller surface irregularities increases with grating density N - up to a limit imposed by diffraction effects - and with the decrease in the number of intercepted lines L, focal ratio F and linear extension of irregularity hl (again, subject to diffraction limitations). It is obvious that longitudinal defocus Δ originating at a local surface error is independent of focal ratio; hence, with the grating focal separation s for given number of intercepted lines being with any chosen grating density changing in proportion to the F number, the relative line deformation δ=Δ/sh will increase with F decreasing. Limit to the detectable linear size of local surface deviation is inversely proportional to the aperture diameter D and the F number, thus inversely proportional to the focal length. It is different with defocus error resulting from gross figure deviations, for instance, conic error resulting in spherical aberration. Here, the amount of nominal defocus for given wavefront error - which implies a certain ratio of transverse aberration vs. Airy disc - changes in proportion to the square of the focal ratio F. For instance, doubling the F number doubles the Airy disc, requiring doubling of the transverse aberration for given aberration level; the latter requires longitudinal defocus Δ greater by a factor of 4, while grating focus separation s for a given number of intercepted lines is only doubled. As a result, the relative line deformation δ=Δ/sh for given wavefront error changes in proportion to the F number. Since Δ factor in the relation δ=ΔN/hLF changes with F2, the deformation relation effectively changes as δ=ΔNF/Lh. In other words, test sensitivity for this type of surface errors still peaks for the maximum grating density, and minimum number of intercepted lines (the linear extension factor h=1 here), but it now increases with the focal ratio F. Sensitivity limit of the Ronchi test for large scale figure errors is determined by the parameters defining zonal defocus and grating density/location. Knowing that the P-V wavefront error of spherical aberration at the best focus is given by Ws=Δ/64F2, substituting for Δ=δLF/N gives a limit to the Ronchi test sensitivity as: W = δL/64NF. In the above relation, the relative line height h is set to 1, so it is strictly applicable to the central vertical portion of the pattern. However, considering that line height declines very slowly toward the two ends of the pattern's horizontal diameter, as sin(arccosρ), with ρ representing the horizontal shift from the pattern center, it is valid for approximately the mid half of the pattern diameter. At the center of curvature of a mirror, the F number doubles and the longitudinal error Δ quadruples, so the magnitude of wavefront error remains unchanged, as given by W=KD/2048F3. However, the relative deformation δ=Δ/s for given grating density and number of intercepted lines doubles, and the sensitivity limit is half that at infinity focus, or W=δL/128NF, where F is the F number for object at infinity.  For given grating and F number, the limit is set by the minimum pattern deformation detectable. For the central band and full extension (h=1), it can be, somewhat arbitrarily, put at the level of δmin=0.1, or 10%. Taking this value for δ gives for, say, N=4 lines/mm grating (~100 lines per inch), L=2.5 intercepted lines and F=5 mirror, the approximate minimum detectable defocus at infinity focus is Δmin=0.31mm and the corresponding limit to positively detectable spherical aberration error in this setup at about 1/2.8 wave P-V in units of 550nm wavelength. At f/10, the detectable error is half as large, or about 1/5.6 wave P-V. At the center of curvature, minimum detectable error is half as large. Going toward the edges along the horizontal diameter, line deformation, and with it the detection limit, increases. On the above pattern (top left), showing 3 intercepted lines, bright strips toward the side edges are noticeably wider than the center line. Their inner edge on the horizontal axis is a projection of the point reflected roughly from mirror's mid-radius, which focuses at only about 1/4 of the total longitudinal aberration from the paraxial focus. This means that the end points at their outer edges have about 3/4 of the nominal deformation of the center line, but squeezed into nearly 3 times smaller linear extension (h~1/3). As a result, the apparent line deformation is significantly more pronounced. Table below shows numerical results for several focal ratios, for 10% minimum deformation detectable and specific number of intercepted lines (L). TEST SETUP MINIMUM DETECTABLE P-V ERROR OF SPHERICAL ABERRATION L f/4 f/6 f/8 f/10 INFINITY FOCUS (PARABOLOID) 2.5 0.44 0.3 0.22 0.18 5 0.88 0.6 0.44 0.36 10 1.8 1.2 0.9 0.7 CENTER OF CURVATURE (SPHERE) 2.5 0.22 0.15 0.11 0.09 5 0.44 0.3 0.22 0.18 10 0.88 0.6 0.44 0.36 The above numbers are only approximate, and will vary with the tester, test modalities and other wavefront aberrations. Ronchi test is a null test only when the near-perfect surface produces straight lines; that is, either at infinity focus for paraboloid, or at the radius of curvature for spherical surfaces. The closer object (source) with a paraboloid, and the farther from sphere's center of curvature, the more of spherical aberration it generates, and the more deformed becomes the pattern (as specified with the Foucault test, the P-V wavefront error at the best focus is for object at the center of curvature given by W=KD4/256R3). This induced aberration causes Ronchi lines deformation of its own, making it hard or impossible to distinguish the inherent figure error - if present - from it. Needless to say, it makes the test insomuch unreliable, or even useless (except for detecting presence of local and zonal errors). An alternative is to use the test with reference patterns for precisely measured grating locations, but it takes away test's simplicity. Very worth mentioning is the possibility of using Ronchi grating in front of the telescope focus (Ronchi "eyepiece"), using a bright star as the light source. With two intercepted lines (L=2), it will detect down to about 1/7 wave P-V of spherical aberration in the telescope objective at f/10. For faster objectives, the sensitivity can be easily increased with a good Barlow lens. In conclusion, while the geometric Ronchi test certainly has its limitations, they do not prevent its use as a quick, simple and reliable - within given limitations - test for surface quality of both, single optical elements and telescopes (with the latter, Ronchi grating is placed in the infinity focus zone). ASTIGMATISM IN THE RONCHI TEST Unlike the standard Foucault test, Ronchi test can detect astigmatic surface, so it can be used as a complementary test. Astigmatism can be either in the glass (poor annealing), ground into optical surface (inadequate grinding/polishing support, technique), or caused by imbalance/pressure on the test stand. It is often present in the thin, large mirrors. Picture below shows simulation of the Ronchi test with a 400mm f/4 paraboloid, with the source at the distance of its vertex radius ("Diffract" by Jim Burrows). If strong enough, astigmatism will cause noticeable asymmetry of the Ronchi pattern, which is in the absence of other aberrations determined by spherical aberration of a paraboloid with the source at its vertex radius (equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the spherical aberration of the corresponding sphere at infinity focus, given by 0.89D/F3 in units of 550nm wavelength).   Pattern deformation is the strongest with astigmatism oriented at 45 degrees vs. Ronchi grid, and generally more pronounced outside the focus. When observed while moving through focus, it produces appearance of rotation, or wobble of the pattern. The 11 waves P-V of astigmatism (top two rows) are easily detectable at 45-degree orientation. Half as much, equal to the 5.5 waves P-V of the spherical aberration of the mirror (corresponding to 12.4mm longitudinal aberration), causes noticeably less of deformation, but it's still readily detectable at 45 degrees. With smaller and slower mirrors, which have significantly lower level of spherical aberration, pattern deformation is less pronounced, and its rotational twist is more obvious, as shown on the simulated patterns for D=200mm f/6 mirror below.   This mirror has 0.82 wave P-V of spherical aberration. Twice larger P-V error of astigmatism is more noticeable closer to the focus, while four times smaller error is barely detectable. Note that all patterns are for positive astigmatism, with the top and bottom bending away, and the sides inward with respect to the reference sphere; for negative astigmatism, patterns are mirror reversed. ◄ 4.8.2. Foucault test   ▐    4.8.4. Waineo null test ► Home  |  Comments

As the relation δ=ΔN/hLF implies, sensitivity of the Ronchi test to smaller surface irregularities increases with grating density N - up to a limit imposed by diffraction effects - and with the decrease in the number of intercepted lines L, focal ratio F and linear extension of irregularity hl (again, subject to diffraction limitations). It is obvious that longitudinal defocus Δ originating at a local surface error is independent of focal ratio; hence, with the grating focal separation s for given number of intercepted lines being with any chosen grating density changing in proportion to the F number, the relative line deformation δ=Δ/sh will increase with F decreasing. Limit to the detectable linear size of local surface deviation is inversely proportional to the aperture diameter D and the F number, thus inversely proportional to the focal length.

I hope this article on the neutral density filter helps you enhance your photography skills. ND filters are very useful items to have in your camera bag. Understanding how and when to use them can enhance your creativity and help you develop as a photographer.

Ronchitest

What is a CPL Filter? How do you use it? The short answer is it’s like putting a pair of sunglasses on your camera. Colors

In conclusion, while the geometric Ronchi test certainly has its limitations, they do not prevent its use as a quick, simple and reliable - within given limitations - test for surface quality of both, single optical elements and telescopes (with the latter, Ronchi grating is placed in the infinity focus zone). ASTIGMATISM IN THE RONCHI TEST Unlike the standard Foucault test, Ronchi test can detect astigmatic surface, so it can be used as a complementary test. Astigmatism can be either in the glass (poor annealing), ground into optical surface (inadequate grinding/polishing support, technique), or caused by imbalance/pressure on the test stand. It is often present in the thin, large mirrors. Picture below shows simulation of the Ronchi test with a 400mm f/4 paraboloid, with the source at the distance of its vertex radius ("Diffract" by Jim Burrows). If strong enough, astigmatism will cause noticeable asymmetry of the Ronchi pattern, which is in the absence of other aberrations determined by spherical aberration of a paraboloid with the source at its vertex radius (equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the spherical aberration of the corresponding sphere at infinity focus, given by 0.89D/F3 in units of 550nm wavelength).   Pattern deformation is the strongest with astigmatism oriented at 45 degrees vs. Ronchi grid, and generally more pronounced outside the focus. When observed while moving through focus, it produces appearance of rotation, or wobble of the pattern. The 11 waves P-V of astigmatism (top two rows) are easily detectable at 45-degree orientation. Half as much, equal to the 5.5 waves P-V of the spherical aberration of the mirror (corresponding to 12.4mm longitudinal aberration), causes noticeably less of deformation, but it's still readily detectable at 45 degrees. With smaller and slower mirrors, which have significantly lower level of spherical aberration, pattern deformation is less pronounced, and its rotational twist is more obvious, as shown on the simulated patterns for D=200mm f/6 mirror below.   This mirror has 0.82 wave P-V of spherical aberration. Twice larger P-V error of astigmatism is more noticeable closer to the focus, while four times smaller error is barely detectable. Note that all patterns are for positive astigmatism, with the top and bottom bending away, and the sides inward with respect to the reference sphere; for negative astigmatism, patterns are mirror reversed. ◄ 4.8.2. Foucault test   ▐    4.8.4. Waineo null test ► Home  |  Comments

Photographic optics are expensive, and neutral density filters are no exception. With that said, invest in a filter made of multi-coated glass, preferably tempered mineral glass. This ensures that there is no color cast or other optical defects that reduce image sharpness.

This gets a little confusing. A one-stop filter, which reduces the amount of light by 50 percent, has an ND factor of ND2 and an optical density number of ND0.3. A two-stop filter reduces the amount of light to 25 percent. Its ND factor is ND4, and its density is ND0.6.

In this article, we’ll discuss what ND filters do, how photographers use these filters, the construction of a quality filter, and choosing the right one for the light conditions.

ND filters are also available in rectangular or square shapes. These fit into a slot of a special holder that goes on the front of the lens. These are bulkier but also more versatile. And a single filter fits all your lenses with the proper adapter ring.

At the center of curvature of a mirror, the F number doubles and the longitudinal error Δ quadruples, so the magnitude of wavefront error remains unchanged, as given by W=KD/2048F3. However, the relative deformation δ=Δ/s for given grating density and number of intercepted lines doubles, and the sensitivity limit is half that at infinity focus, or W=δL/128NF, where F is the F number for object at infinity.

FIGURE 54: LEFT: For the central half-line of Ronchi grating, the apparent geometrical width To projected from the correct (paraxial) focus (F) onto mirror will relate to the width T projected from the aberrated (zonal) focus (F') as To/T=(1/s)/[1/(s-Δ)]=1-(Δ/s), with s being the grating-to-correct-focus separation, and Δ the amount of local, zonal, or figure (conic) defocus. The inverse value, the relative line thickness at the height of aberrated zone vs. central line width is given by s/(s-Δ). When defocus Δ=0, the relative line thickness is constant (1), and line deformation is 0. Thus the deformation can be written as δ=[s/(s-Δ)]-1=Δ/(s-Δ). The sign for both, s and Δ, is relative to paraxial focus; on the above illustration they are both positive, since above the zero at the focus location. If the zone would focus farther than paraxial focus, Δ would become negative (with the zonal line width shrinking), and so would s for the grating outside of focus. For defocus Δ much smaller than grating separation s, as is usually the case, line deformation δ is well approximated by δ~Δ/s. This applies to the vertical mid-pattern segment; for pattern portion toward either side, same nominal deformation affects increasingly shorter lines, becoming effectively greater. given by dividing the relative width of deformation Δ/s by its relative (normalized to 1 for pattern diameter) linear extension h, thus δ=Δ/sh. Illustration top left (spherical under-correction, pattern generated by John Upton's RonWin20) shows a pattern resulting from the outer zones focusing shorter, with their foci forming closer to the grating; as a result, grating projection widens toward the edges, with the bands seemingly diverging. Should the outer zone focus increasingly longer than the center (over-correction), the bands would be narrowing toward the edges.      With the grating-to-focus separation s related to the number of lines per mm N (each line consists of an opaque and transparent strip), the number of intercepted lines L and focal ratio F as s=(L/N)F, the relative geometric line deformation is given by: δ=ΔN/hLF. The relation shows that for given nominal defocus, the degree of deformation - and test sensitivity - increases with the grating line density N and decreases with the number of intercepted lines L, linear extension h and focal ratio F (as expected, since the wider cone of larger relative aperture allows moving the grating closer to the focus for given grating density and number of intercepted lines). This, in general, makes errors with smaller extension easier to detect, but the practical limit to this type of sensitivity is set well above the nominal visual threshold of small detail resolution (also varies with the amount of defocus), due to the light/dark boundaries of the projected pattern being blurred by diffraction effects. Attempts have been made to minimize diffraction effects using line pattern of unequal (still periodic) spacing, in order to make efficient use of denser Ronchi gratings; reportedly, it can significantly increase test sensitivity. However, majority of the amateurs still uses relatively coarse gratings, mainly between 100 and 150 lines per inch (about 4 to 6 lines per mm).       Due to its different ray geometry, the apparent semi-line width along the horizontal pattern axis increases at a faster rate toward the edge than for the central half-line. If n is the semi-line's ordinal number, beginning from 0 for the center, its width relative to that of the central semi-line along the horizontal axis is given by [sn/(s-Δ2)]-s(n-1)/(s-ΔΔ), where Δ2 and ΔΔ are the defocus values for the ray reflected past the outer, and past the inner semi-line's edge , respectively. The width increases vertically, roughly at a similar linear rate as for the central semi-line.   RIGHT:  Ronchi pattern simulations for 300mm f/5 mirror with conics in the range of 0.5 (oblate ellipsoid) to -1.5 (hyperboloid), for 4 lines per mm grating (~100 lines per inch), and for given Ronchi grating locations inside (negative values) and outside of mirror's center of curvature.  Note how the number of intercepted lines decreases inside focus with undercorrection, and increases with overcorrection, the opposite being the case outside of focus. This is a consequence of the defocus between inner and outer mirror areas (i.e. change in separation between the foci of outer zones vs. paraxial focus/c.o.c.) increasing with the conic. While the test is quick and convenient for nulling spherical surface, it becomes much more involved in determining the conic of aspherized surfaces. Due to the high level of aberrations present, changes in pattern deformation are hard to distinguish, requiring use of comparison patterns for specific grating locations. −−− Above consideration was focused on the geometric aspect of the Ronchi test. It is sufficiently accurate for low-to-medium grating density, commonly used by the amateurs, since the effects of wave interference - i.e. diffraction - between the light columns emitted from the bright strips at the Ronchi ruling  is relatively low. At high grating densities, however, diffraction effects become more pronounced. As illustration below shows, Ronchi ruling brakes up the converging beam into separated columns of light; in terms of pupil, it brakes the uniform circular pupil into a series of separated apertures. Eye lens is placed approximately in the focal zone, and since the light uses central parts of the eye, little refraction takes place. Converging columns of light fall onto the retina, creating image of the pattern. But light diffracted from the openings on the ruling spreads wider than what the converging cones outlined by the rays suggest, and these diffracted waves interfere at the retina, blurring the edges. The denser grating, the wider diffracting spread, and the more intrusive to image integrity it becomes. Simplified illustration of the intensity distribution of the diffraction image of the grating (rightmost) indicates gradual transition from bright to dark zone, with the apparent width of bright line determined by the eye brightness threshold (dashed). More diffracted energy from interfering diffracting orders raises minimas and brightens dark lines, reducing contrast, and/or creates subsidiary (lower-level) maximas ("ringing" edges), reducing test sensitivity.

As an example of how ND filters work, suppose you are shooting a scene, and the camera tells you that f/8 at 1/125 second is good exposure. You’d like to maintain the depth of field that comes with f/8, but you want a slower shutter speed, something around 1/15 second. In other words, slow the shutter speed by three stops. Attach a 3-stop ND filter, and you’re there.

Ronchiscreen

Shooting into the light, such as a setting sun, is an opportunity to create a silhouetted foreground against the brilliant colors of a sunset. A neutral density filter can help you avoid overexposing the sun while retaining detail in the deep shadows.

Table below shows numerical results for several focal ratios, for 10% minimum deformation detectable and specific number of intercepted lines (L).

Test sensitivity to this type of surface deformation can be approximated from the fact that the geometric line width changes in proportion to Δ/s, i.e. ratio of zonal defocus (with respect to paraxial focus) vs. grid-to-paraxial-focus separation. In other words, assuming that the shape of a local, or zonal surface deformation can be approximated around local radius of curvature RΔ focusing at i+Δ, i being the vertex surface-to-correct-focus separation, the radius in collimated light (object at infinity) is RΔ~2(i+Δ)=2(f+Δ), and for the object at the center of curvature as RΔ~R+Δ. Since the correct radius is R=2i=2f (f being the focal length), the surface error is approximated by the difference between the depth of the proper and deviated radius for the relative linear extension of surface deviation h, given by [(1/RΔ)-(1/R)]h2. Surface deviations of relatively small linear extension (local errors) double in the wavefront.

This mirror has 0.82 wave P-V of spherical aberration. Twice larger P-V error of astigmatism is more noticeable closer to the focus, while four times smaller error is barely detectable. Note that all patterns are for positive astigmatism, with the top and bottom bending away, and the sides inward with respect to the reference sphere; for negative astigmatism, patterns are mirror reversed.

It is different with defocus error resulting from gross figure deviations, for instance, conic error resulting in spherical aberration. Here, the amount of nominal defocus for given wavefront error - which implies a certain ratio of transverse aberration vs. Airy disc - changes in proportion to the square of the focal ratio F. For instance, doubling the F number doubles the Airy disc, requiring doubling of the transverse aberration for given aberration level; the latter requires longitudinal defocus Δ greater by a factor of 4, while grating focus separation s for a given number of intercepted lines is only doubled. As a result, the relative line deformation δ=Δ/sh for given wavefront error changes in proportion to the F number. Since Δ factor in the relation δ=ΔN/hLF changes with F2, the deformation relation effectively changes as δ=ΔNF/Lh. In other words, test sensitivity for this type of surface errors still peaks for the maximum grating density, and minimum number of intercepted lines (the linear extension factor h=1 here), but it now increases with the focal ratio F.

Pattern deformation is the strongest with astigmatism oriented at 45 degrees vs. Ronchi grid, and generally more pronounced outside the focus. When observed while moving through focus, it produces appearance of rotation, or wobble of the pattern. The 11 waves P-V of astigmatism (top two rows) are easily detectable at 45-degree orientation. Half as much, equal to the 5.5 waves P-V of the spherical aberration of the mirror (corresponding to 12.4mm longitudinal aberration), causes noticeably less of deformation, but it's still readily detectable at 45 degrees.

The ND 6-stop filter is a good first buy. With it, you can take long exposures in daylight in the 5-10 second range. At sunset or sunrise, you may capture long exposure effects of a minute or more.

Unless you’re good at doing exposure time calculations in your head, you might want to look into the ND calculator app – especially for those longer exposures. This app calculates shutter speed based on aperture, ISO, and filter stop number. That process works in reverse as well. Enter the shutter speed, aperture, and ISO, and the app tells you what strength of filter to choose. Check the App Store on your phone for ND calculator.

Unlike the standard Foucault test, Ronchi test can detect astigmatic surface, so it can be used as a complementary test. Astigmatism can be either in the glass (poor annealing), ground into optical surface (inadequate grinding/polishing support, technique), or caused by imbalance/pressure on the test stand. It is often present in the thin, large mirrors. Picture below shows simulation of the Ronchi test with a 400mm f/4 paraboloid, with the source at the distance of its vertex radius ("Diffract" by Jim Burrows). If strong enough, astigmatism will cause noticeable asymmetry of the Ronchi pattern, which is in the absence of other aberrations determined by spherical aberration of a paraboloid with the source at its vertex radius (equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the spherical aberration of the corresponding sphere at infinity focus, given by 0.89D/F3 in units of 550nm wavelength).

Make sure the filters precisely match their optical density number. So you’ll know what to expect from each one. Several fixed ND filters of different density options will give you greater flexibility in the field.

In the above relation, the relative line height h is set to 1, so it is strictly applicable to the central vertical portion of the pattern. However, considering that line height declines very slowly toward the two ends of the pattern's horizontal diameter, as sin(arccosρ), with ρ representing the horizontal shift from the pattern center, it is valid for approximately the mid half of the pattern diameter.

The center graduated neutral density filter (CGND) is darkest at the center and becomes progressively clearer toward the edges. Not widely used, the CGND can offset the vignetting that happens with wide-angle lenses.

For given grating and F number, the limit is set by the minimum pattern deformation detectable. For the central band and full extension (h=1), it can be, somewhat arbitrarily, put at the level of δmin=0.1, or 10%. Taking this value for δ gives for, say, N=4 lines/mm grating (~100 lines per inch), L=2.5 intercepted lines and F=5 mirror, the approximate minimum detectable defocus at infinity focus is Δmin=0.31mm and the corresponding limit to positively detectable spherical aberration error in this setup at about 1/2.8 wave P-V in units of 550nm wavelength. At f/10, the detectable error is half as large, or about 1/5.6 wave P-V. At the center of curvature, minimum detectable error is half as large.

For landscape photographers in bright sunshine and harsh lighting, ND filters come into their own. Overexposure can be avoided while enhancing the image quality and avoiding color shifts.

The downside is the expense. Square filters generally cost more. You need a filter holder in which to place the hard-edge filters; however, that holder can be adapted to fit multiple lens sizes.

If you plan to shoot long exposures, you need a sturdy tripod. In addition, a sandbag, available in weights up to 50 pounds, provides extra stability in windy conditions.

ND filters can be stacked, and the effect is cumulative. That is, if you attach a 2-stop ND filter to your camera lens and then add a 6-stop filter on top, the ND filter performance equals eight stops.

The majority of ND filters are round and attached to the front of the lens with screw threads. If the lens lacks filter threads, probably because the front element is so large, opt for drop-in filters near the lens mount.

Sensitivity limit of the Ronchi test for large scale figure errors is determined by the parameters defining zonal defocus and grating density/location. Knowing that the P-V wavefront error of spherical aberration at the best focus is given by Ws=Δ/64F2, substituting for Δ=δLF/N gives a limit to the Ronchi test sensitivity as:

Here’s an example: shooting on a clear sunny day, the light is bright, and the shadows are harsh. But you’d like to create a shallow depth of field, so you want to use a wide aperture. However, the bright light poses the risk of overexposing the scene, even with a fast shutter speed. But a neutral density filter of about six stops allows you to use a wide aperture without overexposure.

The above numbers are only approximate, and will vary with the tester, test modalities and other wavefront aberrations.

Ronchi gratingfor sale

Slower shutter speeds add an ethereal feeling to water movement. Clouds photographed at long shutter speed take on a surreal effect.

If portraits or weddings are your specialties, 3-stop ND filters excel at reducing the depth of field with a larger aperture and low ISO setting.

Ronchi test is a null test only when the near-perfect surface produces straight lines; that is, either at infinity focus for paraboloid, or at the radius of curvature for spherical surfaces. The closer object (source) with a paraboloid, and the farther from sphere's center of curvature, the more of spherical aberration it generates, and the more deformed becomes the pattern (as specified with the Foucault test, the P-V wavefront error at the best focus is for object at the center of curvature given by W=KD4/256R3). This induced aberration causes Ronchi lines deformation of its own, making it hard or impossible to distinguish the inherent figure error - if present - from it. Needless to say, it makes the test insomuch unreliable, or even useless (except for detecting presence of local and zonal errors). An alternative is to use the test with reference patterns for precisely measured grating locations, but it takes away test's simplicity.

A hard GND filter has a sudden transition between the dark and clear sections. A soft GND transition is slower and more subtle. A medium GND takes the middle ground.

A neutral density filter is darkened glass. The cheaper ones are made of resin. At the same time, reducing the amount of light entering the camera lens results in no changes in hue or color casts. That is, all the light wavelengths, or colors, are reduced equally. In addition, the polarization of light is unaffected. So the filter’s influence on hue and polarization is neutral.

A square filter system, which may be square or rectangular, offers flexibility. In the field, it’s quicker to change ND filters. Stacking is easier, and stacking square format filters is less likely to cause vignetting.

Variable ND filters (VND) change density according to how far it rotates. It works much like a circular polarizing filter. It is convenient. Simply turn the rotating piece. However, some photographers recommend against it. A variable ND is thicker and may result in vignetting with wide angle lenses. Also, variable ND filters have a reputation for creating odd crosshatch-appearing artifacts in the sky during a long exposure.

Very worth mentioning is the possibility of using Ronchi grating in front of the telescope focus (Ronchi "eyepiece"), using a bright star as the light source. With two intercepted lines (L=2), it will detect down to about 1/7 wave P-V of spherical aberration in the telescope objective at f/10. For faster objectives, the sensitivity can be easily increased with a good Barlow lens.

ND filters enhance some of the more subtle colors. An early morning shot, just before the sun rises, brings out purple and gold shades that you won’t get with just a normal lens.

Lensball photography has become a top hit among photographers searching for new creativity in their imagery. They are lightweight, easy to travel with, and work

A graduated neutral density filter (GND) is dark at the top and gradually becomes clear toward the bottom. This evens out the exposure between a bright sky and a dark foreground; however, this can also be achieved in post-processing. The GND comes in a number of f-stops and in several variations.

One of the most overlooked choices a photographer faces is finding and using the perfect backdrop. Not only are there a number of different types

Going toward the edges along the horizontal diameter, line deformation, and with it the detection limit, increases. On the above pattern (top left), showing 3 intercepted lines, bright strips toward the side edges are noticeably wider than the center line. Their inner edge on the horizontal axis is a projection of the point reflected roughly from mirror's mid-radius, which focuses at only about 1/4 of the total longitudinal aberration from the paraxial focus. This means that the end points at their outer edges have about 3/4 of the nominal deformation of the center line, but squeezed into nearly 3 times smaller linear extension (h~1/3). As a result, the apparent line deformation is significantly more pronounced.

The capacity of ND filters to impact light reduction is measured in stops. A one-stop filter lets in half as much light as no filter. A two-stop filter allows one-quarter the amount of light as no filter.

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A neutral density 10-stop filter creates the opportunity for even longer exposure, particularly in bright conditions. With creativity and control of how much light enters the camera, a landscape photographer can produce striking results in ordinary settings.

Round filters come with a clear specification of their size. Common sizes are 67 mm, 77 mm, and 82 mm. Match that to the filter diameter noted at the front of the lens.

With smaller and slower mirrors, which have significantly lower level of spherical aberration, pattern deformation is less pronounced, and its rotational twist is more obvious, as shown on the simulated patterns for D=200mm f/6 mirror below.

The ND filter allows photographers to choose a variety of combinations of aperture, exposure, and ISO sensitivity that, without the ND filter, would result in overexposure. With this flexibility, a photographer can achieve a more limited depth of field or motion blur in a number it situations and conditions with no color shift or loss of image quality.

We simplify matters by concentrating on how many f-stops of light reduction we want. Retailers such as Adorama, Amazon, and B&H Photo list their products as “two-stop” or “one-stop,” along with the other designations.

If you are a professional photographer, you will want to invest in the best camera flash for your DSLR camera. It may seem overwhelming at

However, stacking filters can create issues. It can lead to vignetting. Also, stacking may cause other optical problems, such as internal reflection, color shift, loss of sharpness, and chromatic aberration.

Ronchi grating

Let’s take another example: shooting at the beach. Again, it’s bright and sunny, but you’d like to capture a misty, silky effect of waves splashing on the shore. This calls for longer shutter speeds, maybe a 20-30 second shot, without completely washing out the image. A 10-stop ND filter delivers the desired effect.

Ring lights have become an important part of online marketing, vlogs, videos, conference calls, and social media in general. There are a wide variety of

In practice, selecting the number of stops of light reduction desired clarifies which filter to use in a specific setting.

Lee Filters produces a line of high-quality filters, and Big Stopper Lee Filters rank high in favorability ratings by photographers. They’re also some of the more expensive.

At least that was what Vasco Ronchi hoped for when he decided to take a close look at the testing potential of this setup back in the 1920s. After detailed analysis, he concluded that such test, at least in its simple visual/geometric form, is not sufficiently accurate for astronomical optics. Simple geometrical analysis gives basic information on the potential and limitations of the Ronchi test.

The first step in buying a neutral density filter is to determine which filter type you want to invest in. Both have advantages and disadvantages.

If a grating consisting of successive opaque and transparent straight strips is placed in the light converging to, or diverging from a point-object image, close to the point of convergence, the eye positioned at the receiving end will see it projected at the aperture, greatly magnified. The width of projected strips is determined by their separation from the focus: the closer they are to it, the wider their projection. Thus, in the absence of aberrations, grating projection consists of straight dark and light bands across the aperture. Any significant local, zonal or figure error will cause defocus and show as a detectable bend deformation (FIG. 54).

Screw-in filters are more compact, an advantage for both carrying and storing. The outer ring protects the glass, making them more durable and drop resistant. Also, a screw-in filter features a tight seal to the lens, so light leaks are less of an issue.

ND filters come with densities of up to 32 stops of light reduction, exceeding practical application for most photographers.

Flash diffusers help you illuminate your subjects with a much more appealing light than using bare flash. A flash diffuser scatters and softens the light

Fixed ND filters are less costly; however, they come in specific thread sizes. So you’ll need multiple sizes of the same strength filter or invest in adapters.

If you go with round filters, you should buy a filter or a set of filters to fit your largest lens. Then purchase step-up rings to adapt to the smaller lenses.