The electric field distributions of the Hermite–Gaussian modes are a system of functions which are mutually orthogonal. Arbitrary field distributions can be decomposed into Hermite–Gaussian functions, where the amplitude content of each one is determine by an overlap integral.

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Is it possible – for a given real light beam – to find the corresponding mode superposition (or an approximation to it in a least squares sense)? Assuming it consists only of HG modes and e.g. no rotationally symmetric modes.

Objective lenses are responsible for primary image formation, determining the quality of the image produced and controlling the total magnification and resolution. They can vary greatly in design and quality.

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Experimentally, this is difficult. You may (for a monochromatic beam) think that you could measure the power content of the HG modes by checking transmitted powers when scanning the resonator length, but mode frequency degeneracies are difficult to handle.

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Hermite–Gaussian modes can often be used to represent the modes of an optical resonator, if the optical elements in the resonator only do simple changes to the phase and intensity profiles (e.g., approximately preserving parabolic phase profiles) and the paraxial approximation is satisfied. As these conditions are very often fulfilled in laser resonators, laser resonator modes are often of Hermite–Gaussian kind. If such a laser operates on a single mode, a characteristic intensity profile of the output beam as in Figure 1 can be observed.

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Another frequently used mode family is that of Laguerre–Gaussian modes, which fit better to situations with a rotational symmetry because they are based on polar coordinates. Note, however, that lasers often contain components placed at a slight angle against the beam, which breaks rotational symmetry. Therefore, Hermite–Gaussian modes are often better suited for laser beams.

When light propagates in free space or in a homogeneous optical medium, its intensity profile will generally change during propagation. For certain electric field amplitude distributions, however, which are called modes, this is not the case: the shape of the amplitude profile remains constant, even though there may be a re-scaling of the profile, an overall change in optical phase, and possibly also a change in the total optical power.

Many microscopes have several objective lenses that you can rotate to view the specimen at varying magnification powers. Usually, you will find multiple objective lenes on a microscope, consisting of 1.25X to 150X.

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MXPLFLN-BD objective lenses add depth to the MPLFLN series for epi-illumination imaging by offering simultaneously improved numerical aperture and working distance.

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The software RP Resonator is a particularly flexible tool for calculating all kinds of resonator mode properties. Both standing-wave and ring resonators are supported. You can take into account alignment sensitivity and thermal lensing.

To clean a microscope objective lens, first remove the objective lens and place it on a flat surface with the front lens facing up. Use a blower to remove any particles without touching the lens. Then fold a piece of lens paper into a narrow triangular shape. Moisten the pointed end of the paper with small amount of lens cleaner and place it on the lens. Wipe the lens in a spiral cleaning motion starting from the lens’ center to the edge. Check your work for any remaining residue with an eyepiece or loupe. If needed, repeat this wiping process with a new lens paper until the lens is clean. Important: never wipe a dry lens, and avoid using abrasive or lint cloths and facial or lab tissues. Doing so can scratch the lens surface. Find more tips on objective lens cleaning in our blog post, 6 Tips to Properly Clean Immersion Oil off Your Objectives.

The intensity distribution of such a mode (Figure 1) has <$n$> nodes in the horizontal direction and <$m$> nodes in the vertical direction. For <$n = m$> = 0, a Gaussian beam is obtained. This mode is called the fundamental mode or axial mode, and it has the highest beam quality with an M2 factor of 1. Other Hermite–Gaussian modes with indices <$n$> and <$m$> have an <$M^2$> factor of <$(1 + 2 n)$> in the <$x$> direction, and <$(1 + 2 m)$> in the <$y$> direction.

The beam quality factor is generally not an integer, but can be any value above for equal unity. For Hermite–Gaussian modes, you get integer values, but you can have any superpositions of those modes and then generally get non-integer values.

The ocular lens is located at the top of the eyepiece tube where you position your eye during observation, while the objective lens is located closer to the sample. The ocular lens generally has a low magnification but works in combination with the objective lens to achieve greater magnification power. It magnifies the magnified image already captured by the objective lens. While the ocular lens focuses purely on magnification, the objective lens performs other functions, such as controlling the overall quality and clarity of the microscope image.

A further generalization of the equation above would allow for different mode sizes and focus positions (astigmatism) for the <$x$> and <$y$> directions. The direction of the electric field, not specified in the equation above, determines the polarization.

A single Hermite–Gaussian resonator mode may be excited by incident quasi-monochromatic laser light if (a) the incident light has a non-zero field overlap with the mode and a frequency matching a resonance, and (b) if all other resonator modes either have a zero field overlap or resonance frequencies not fitting to the laser light. This combination of conditions may be fulfilled even for an incident beam shape not fitting well to the Hermite–Gaussian mode shape. For example, one could excite a TEM01 mode with a suitably aligned Gaussian input beam of suitable frequency, if that is not resonant with other modes.

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For each combination of an optical frequency, a beam axis, a focus position, and some beam radius of a Gaussian beam in the focus, there is a whole family of Hermite–Gaussian modes (TEMnm modes, Gauss–Hermite modes). These are approximate solutions of the wave equation, valid for weak focusing (→ paraxial approximation). Their electric field distributions are essentially given by the product of a Gaussian function and a Hermite polynomial, apart from the phase term:

where <$H_n(x)$> is the Hermite polynomial with the non-negative integer index <$n$>. The indices <$n$> and <$m$> determine the shape of the profile in the <$x$> and <$y$> direction, respectively. The quantities <$w$> and <$R$> evolve in the <$z$> direction as described in the article on Gaussian beams.

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Many laser providers give a <$M^2$> to be less or equal to a non-integer value, e.g. <$M^2 < 1.2$>. Does it mean there is a “non-integer” mode?

If you have a complex amplitude profile (which you may measure, e.g. with a Shack–Hartmann sensor), you can do the mode decomposition numerically – by numerically calculating overlap integrals with the mode functions.