One way to prevent moiré is by adding an optical low-pass filter to the sensor. Another is to use a different color filter array.

Digital cameras are everywhere – from high-end professional equipment used by the media to everyday smartphone cameras, webcams, and even doorbells. At the heart of every single one is a digital camera sensor, also known as an image sensor. Without this vital piece of technology, digital cameras as we know them today simply would not exist.

Sensor resolutions have risen dramatically since the 16-megapixel X-Trans CMOS sensor in X-Pro1, making it less likely for moiré to occur. As a result, optical low-pass filters have all but disappeared – though increased image sharpness is not the only potential advantage of the X-Trans color filter array.

This was a major problem in the early days of digital photography when sensor resolutions were lower. However, with sensors now enjoying much higher resolutions, moiré is less common.

Additionally, the less uniform pattern is closer to the random arrangement of silver particles on analog photographic film, which contributes to Fujifilm’s much-loved film-like look.

You may have also noticed the inclusion of a color filter in Figure 1. The reason for this is that pixels detect light, not color, so a camera sensor by itself can only produce black & white images.

A color filter array is a pattern of individual red, green, and blue color filters arranged in a grid – one for every pixel. These filters sit on top of the photosites and ensure that each individual pixel is exposed to only red, green, or blue light.

Spectral Resolution is defined as the ability to resolve spectral features.  This is calculated by measuring the width of a narrow spectral peak at the half the peak maximum in terms of the wavelength.  This is also call the Full Width Half Maximum (FWHM).

In many cases, such as photographing on a smartphone, that is the end of the process. However, most mirrorless cameras have the ability to save images in RAW format, providing photographers with more options.

Resolving Power: Also called spatial resolution or horizontal resolution, is the minimum distance between two points that may be resolved by the microscope.  The resolution formula of a microscope is:

The f-number of a microscope is the working distance of the objective divided by the aperture diameter.  It is defined by the equation:

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Until the introduction of the stacked sensor, CMOS sensors operated on a single layer. This meant the signal readouts from each pixel had to travel along strips of wiring all the way to the outside of the sensor before they were processed.

When photons enter the photosite, they hit a light-sensitive semi-conductor diode, or photodiode, and are converted into an electrical current that directly corresponds to the intensity of the light detected.

The image processor is able to read these digital signals collectively and translate them into an image, because each pixel is assigned an individual value, depending on the intensity of light it was exposed to.

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While the basic operation of the CMOS sensor has remained fundamentally the same throughout its history, its design has evolved to maximize efficiency and speed.

As the name suggests, a RAW file contains the raw image data before any demosaicing has taken place. This allows photographers to demosaic images using external software such as Capture One.

Useful magnification Range for an optical microscope at 550 nm ranges from a minimum of [500 X (NA of the objective)] to a maximum of[1000 X (NA of the objective)]

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With the move to back-side illumination enabling much higher resolutions and stacked sensors increasing readout speeds so significantly, recent developments amount to nothing short of a revolution in CMOS camera sensor technology.

As a result, RAW files contain a wider dynamic range and broader color spectrum, which allows for more effective exposure correction and color adjustments.

Figure 5: Cross section of a front-side illuminated vs back-side illuminated CMOS sensor. For illustrative purposes only.

Spectral Range is the region in which the spectrometer is sensitive.  For example, a spectrophotometer covering the visible range would have a spectral range of at least 400 to 700 nm.

An optical low-pass filter – also known as an anti-aliasing filter – is a filter placed in front of a camera sensor to slightly blur the fine details of the scene being exposed, thereby reducing its resolution to a level below that of the sensor.

The Working Distance (WD) of a microscope objective is the distance from the front lens element of the objective to the surface of the sample when it is in focus.

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File types such as JPEG and HEIF are designed to make image files easily portable, so significant compression takes place to achieve the smallest possible file sizes.

This signal is amplified on-pixel, then sent to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which converts it into digital format and sends it to an image processor.

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Made up of approximately 55% green, 22.5% red, and 22.5% blue filters, it creates similar proportions of red, green, and blue pixels as the Bayer array. But it uses a more complicated 6×6 arrangement, comprised of differing 3×3 patterns.

Using a less uniform pattern helps reduce moiré, eliminating the requirement for an optical low-pass filter and in turn creating sharper images.

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The Beer Lambert equation states that the absorbance is equal to the molar absorptivity times the object thickness (b) times the absorber concentration (c).  The equation is:

For example, the X-Trans CMOS 5 HS stacked sensor found in FUJIFILM X-H2S enjoys four times the reading speed of its predecessor and 33 times the reading speed of the original X-Trans CMOS sensor featured in X-Pro1.

Dark Scan (D) is acquired by measuring a spectrum with all light blocked from the detector.  This measures the electronic noise of the detector and associated electronics.

During the compression process, a large amount of tonal and color information read by the sensor is lost. Less information means lower quality and, in turn, restricted freedom to edit.

What’s more, without the problem of obstructing light entering the sensor, it’s possible to keep stacking additional chips, offering huge potential for future developments.

Relative reflectance is defined by intensity of radiant energy reflected from the object divided by the intensity of radiant energy illuminating the object at each wavelength.  Please note that absolute reflectance adds additional terms to the equation to eliminate the spectral characteristics of the reference material.

Like any technology, camera sensors have come a long way in the past decade alone, and look to continue this development into the future.

Learn more by exploring the rest of our Fundamentals of Photography series, or browse all the content on Exposure Center for education, inspiration, and insight from the world of photography.

As its name suggests, the back-side illuminated (BSI) sensor flips this original design around so the light is now gathered from what was its back side, where there is no circuitry.

To minimize the amount of light bouncing off this circuitry, a microlens is placed on the top of each pixel to direct the light into the photodiode and maximize the number of photons gathered.

Different types of software use distinct demosaicing algorithms, each offering unique aesthetics. An obvious advantage of this is that photographers can choose their personal preference, but the benefits of creating in RAW format extend much further.

The answer is a process called demosaicing, in which a demosaicing algorithm predicts the missing color values for an individual pixel based on the strength of the color recorded by the pixels that surround it.

This is done automatically by the camera’s built-in processor, which then turns it into a viewable image file format such as JPEG or HEIF.

While there are a number of different types of camera sensor, by far the most prevalent is the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor, which can be found inside the vast majority of modern digital cameras.

At the most basic level, a camera sensor is a solid-state device that absorbs particles of light (photons) through millions of light-sensitive pixels and converts them into electrical signals. These electrical signals are then interpreted by a computer chip, which uses them to produce a digital image.

By stacking them in this way, the distance the pixel values have to travel is drastically reduced, resulting in much faster processing speeds.

The Refractive Index (n) is ratio of the speed of light in a lower density media (such as air or oil) divided by the speed of light in a higher density media (such as quartz).

Parfocal objectives stay in focus on an object when changed between one objective and another with only a small variation in focus.

The door is now open for huge future advances, equipping CMOS sensors with capabilities that simply weren’t possible only a few years ago.

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The Numerical Aperture is defined as the ability of a lens, or grouping of lenses such as a microscope objective, to collect light and resolve image details at a fixed object distance.  The numerical aperture formula defines it as:

Parcentral objectives have the same centering on the object when changing between one objective and another with only a small amount of error.

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With stacked sensors, these processing chips have been added to the back of the sensor, essentially creating a ‘stack’ of chips sandwiched together.

Transmittance is defined by intensity of radiant energy transmitted through the object divided by the intensity of radiant energy illuminating the object at each wavelength.

A CMOS sensor is made up of a grid of millions of tiny pixels. Each pixel is an individual photosite, often called a well (see Figure 1).

The Bayer filter array (see Figure 2) is made up of a repeating 2×2 pattern in which each set of four pixels consists of two green, one red, and one blue pixel. This equates to an overall split of 50% green, 25% red, and 25% blue.

By removing the obstruction caused by the circuitry, a greater surface area can be exposed to light, allowing the sensor to gather more photons and subsequently maximize its efficiency.

Every vertical and horizontal line in an X-Trans CMOS sensor includes a combination of red, green, and blue pixels, while every diagonal line includes at least one green pixel. This helps the sensor reproduce the most accurate color.

Step Size is the spectral range divided by the number of pixels in the detector.  This is not related to the spectral resolution as the latter is also related to the entrance slit width and the spectrometer design.

Common instances in which moiré can be seen are when photographing brick walls from a distance, fabrics, or display screens. If the pattern being photographed misaligns with the grid created by the color filter array, strange effects appear, as illustrated in Figure 3.

Sample Scan (S) is acquired by measuring a spectrum of the sample.  The following calculation is performed to generate a corrected spectrum of just the sample without any of the spectral characteristics of the system.

Depth of Field: This is the longitudinal resolving power of the microscope.  It is the distance between the nearest object plane that is in focus and the farthest object plane that is also in focus.  It is defined by the equation:

As you can see in Figure 1, because the conversion and amplification processes happen on-pixel, the transistors, wiring, and circuitry have to be included in the spaces between each photosite.

As covered above, a single pixel can only record a single value. But if you zoom into a digital image, each individual pixel can contain a mixture of colors, rather than just the red, green, or blue allowed by the color filter array.

But what are camera sensors and how do they work? We aim to outline the basics behind the most common type of camera sensor and explain how this ever-crucial technology has evolved.

Although the effects of the filter are so slight that they are invisible to many everyday photographers, blurring inevitably equates to a reduction in sharpness. This is undesirable for many professionals, and is one of the reasons Fujifilm developed the X-Trans color filter array.

The reason there is a higher frequency of green filters is because the filter array has been designed to mimic the human eye’s higher sensitivity to green light.

Reference Scan (R) is acquired by measuring a spectrum of a reference material or area on a sample.  This measures the spectral characteristics of the material as well as the optics, light sources and detectors of the system.

In the case of the original front-side illuminated (FSI) sensor design, all the wiring and circuitry necessary for storing, amplifying, and transferring pixel values runs along the borders between each pixel. This means light has to travel through the gaps to reach the photodiode beneath.