When a sound is recorded, each component frequency gets recorded, but the process invariably changes the volume of each frequency. The playback is a mixture of tones that constitute the original sound, but usually at different volumes. This change in volume for a specific tone causes the recorded sound to differ from the original. Likewise, when an image is projected or recorded, the contrast is typically differs from the original object by small or large amounts.

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The city of Liege has been working for several years on the issue of radicalisation, notably through Efus-led European projects. > What are the challenges and issues linked…

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Defining a complex term with as many nuances as polarisation is not easy, especially considering that one of the most extensive causes of polarisation is the oversimplification of reality, leading to a confrontation based on a lack of mutual understanding and de-humanisation of the other. In addition, polarisation might be seen as a regular state of democratic societies. After all, the notion of democracy presupposes a society characterised by differences and conflicting interests. Yet, the term polarisation, as it is understood in recent academic and political debates, does not refer to political, social, cultural and religious diversity and pluralism as such, but to a growing fragmentation of society into antagonistic collectives perceived as opponents in existential questions over the future of society. While democracy is built on shared values and principles and, in ideal cases, social bonds, polarisation relates to a social and political fragmentation of society that puts these certitudes and bonds into question. Preventing polarisation does not aim for homogenisation or the levelling of differences; instead, it aims to foster social cohesion and an inclusive “us” reflected in inter-group trust, reciprocity, solidarity, and connectedness.

where Tmax is the maximum transmittance of the grating and Tmin is the minimum  transmittance. When we look at the ratio of the transmission from the light and dark bars, we are measuring contrast. We can look at a sine wave grating in the same manner. Now, let’s assume that you have a sine wave grating of a specific frequency (u) and modulation (contrast), and its image is passed through a lens. The modulation of the image can now be measured. The modulation transfer function at a specific frequency, MTF(u), is defined as the modulation, Mi, of the image divided by the modulation of the object, Mo, and is described by the following:

Paris, June 2019 – The term “polarisation” is mentioned ever more frequently in the political and intellectual debate on the main trends that shape our Western societies, particularly since the wave of terrorist attacks over the past few years.

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For a Ronchi rulings there are basically dark bars and light bars and we can measure the amount of light coming from each. The maximum amount of light will come from the light bars and the minimum from the dark bars. If the light in a lens system is measured in terms of transmittance (T) we can define modulation according to the following equation:

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These groups are characterised by an “us and them” or black and white thinking, refusing any otherness (those who do not belong to my gender, ethnic group, political family, religion, etc.). On a fundamental level, social cohesion breaks down when trust disappears and is replaced by fear and anger.

Since January 2019, Efus has been leading one of the first European projects on this issue: BRIDGE (Building resilience to reduce polarisation and growing extremism) seeks to raise awareness among local actors and provide them with tools to reduce individual and collective vulnerability to radicalisation on the local level, by mitigating polarisation.

Modulation transfer is the ability of a lens system to transfer an object’s contrast to its image.  Modulation is therefore a ratio of image contrast to object contrast. Ideally, it would be one, or 100%. Modulation transfer plots describe the modulation of a lens system as the object increases in complexity. Therefore, the Y-axis is modulation and the X-axis is spatial frequency, measured in line pairs per millimeter. As you would expect, as the spatial frequency increases, the modulation of any lens system decreases. Outside of optical engineering, most are unfamiliar with the importance of MTF because there are no easy ways to standardize it.

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If a single pure tone is recorded, the frequency of the recording matches the frequency of the original, but the recorded volume usually changes. The ratio of the recorded volume to the original volume would be the measured response of an audio system to that particular frequency. If an audio system has different responses to different frequencies, the recorded sound will not match the original. However, if the audio system has the same response to all frequencies, the recorded sound will duplicate the original sound. A graph of response vs. frequency, known as a frequency response curve, is typically constructed to show the fidelity, or frequency response of any audio system. High-end audiophiles spend much of their time (and most of their money) chasing this.

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It is important to distinguish between polarisation and radicalisation. The Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN) describes radicalisation as “the process where individuals or factions of these polarised groups grow further towards the acceptance and use of violent extremism and ultimately terrorism.” It concludes, consequently, that polarisation can potentially lead to radicalisation in certain occasions. Radicalisation and extremism have become the most common terms used to refer to the dynamics by which individuals, groups, and mass opinion are moved to support or participate in political violence. However, while the dynamics of violence can involve radical or extremist ideas and beliefs, the link between these and violent extremist behaviour is not linear, automatic, or one-way. Radicalisation of ideas and actions are not identical. 99% of those with radical ideas never act; not all who hold radical beliefs engage in illegal acts. But what is clear is that some political groups and parties exploit polarisation to radicalise the political debate and, for some, fuel violence.

The MTF of an ideal optical system (one with no loss of contrast, or detail) would be a horizontal line. Of course, this is impossible to achieve. At some point, the MTF becomes 0; which is known as the cutoff frequency. A SWG with a frequency exceeding the cutoff will image as uniform gray, with no variation in contrast. In other words, SWGs with frequencies above the cutoff do not appear in the image. SWGs with frequencies below the cutoff appear in the image, but at reduced contrast when compared to the original. The cutoff frequency roughly corresponds to the resolution.  The MTF gives a more complete evaluation of optical performance than resolution, but it is harder to measure and interpret.

As stated above, the difference between the bending of paraxial rays and the marginal rays is the amount of either positive or negative spherical aberration. The human cornea has naturally occurring positive spherical aberration and the human lens as naturally occurring negative spherical aberration. The net result is that these two structures together produce an optical system with a very low amount of positive spherical aberration. But if an older style spherical intraocular lens is implanted (which has positive spherical aberration) this increases the total amount of spherical aberration and degrades the image quality at larger pupil sizes.

The most common way that MTF is explained is as an analogy to sound. Just as in optical imaging, audio recordings do not perfectly duplicate the original. A sound consists of many individual frequencies, or pure tones, simultaneously reaching the ear. Two parameters characterize a pure tone: the frequency, or tone, and the loudness, or volume.  A pure tone is typically represented by a sine wave.  The horizontal distance between peaks determines the frequency and a vertical distance from peak to valley determines the volume. Of course, most sounds are a mixture of many hundreds of different frequencies, each with its own volume. This would be a complex sound. In much the same way, an optical image is made up of many spacial frequencies and differing amounts of contrast.

The human eye can be thought of in the same way as any optical system, with two basic components: the cornea and the lens. The cornea is an optical structure with positive spherical aberration and the lens is an optical structure with negative spherical aberration. The lens, with its negative spherical aberration greatly reduces the effect of the positive spherical aberration of the cornea.

It is generally agreed that the polarisation of our societies into antagonistic and increasingly  “enemy” groups corrodes social cohesion and security, which provides a breeding ground for radicalisation. Identifying polarisation in order to reduce it therefore appears an appropriate preventive approach in order to counter early radical trends before they become full-fledged and turn into violence.

Intraocular lenses used in ophthalmic surgery are generally spherical, are made of either silicone or plastic and have a single index of refraction. They are also not generally aspheric, and as such produce positive spherical aberration due to the fact that pencils of light traveling through the visual axis (known as paraxial rays) are bent less than those that travel through an area away from the visual axis (known as marginal rays).

Optical images of any kind can be analyzed in much the same way. The difficult part here is that the optical analogy of a pure tone is a sine wave grating, or SWG. The frequency of the sine wave grating is determined by the horizontal peak-to-peak distance. The sine wave grating contrast is indicated by the difference in brightness between the brightest and darkest points, and is analogous to the volume of a tone. One difference between sound and optics is that SWGs also have an orientation, which can be vertical, horizontal, or oblique.

The impact of social media in today’s polarisation processes has been fundamental. In recent years, we have witnessed the role that social networks have played in the polarisation process of modern societies and in the development of far-reaching and consequential events. Furthermore, it has been shown that algorithms developed by technological platforms to personalise the information we receive via navigation data generated by each user have become instruments to control the flow of information and exert an increasing influence on public opinion and on the distribution of information. Although apparently innocuous, the implementation of personalised search algorithms and content selection brings the risk of removing information contrary to a user’s points of view, causing a de facto isolation in our own ideological bubble, known as the echo chamber phenomenon or bubble filter. This isolation polarises us more as a society and drastically reduces the opposition to and confrontation of our ideas.

Mtf transfer functionin lens

Efus and the BRIDGE project experts wrote a positioning paper that explores this notion of polarisation. Here are some of the main insights.

The fourth “toolbox” webinar presented during the final conference of the PRACTICIES project was the serious game Newscraft developed by the University of Lille / Geriico research centre…

The greater the power of a spherical intraocular lens, the more spherical aberration it will produce. And the more the spherical aberration, the more the MTF is degraded, almost like unwanted noise in a poor quality sound recording. With an intraocular lens of a non-physiologic power, such as +35.00 diopters, there is an increase in spherical aberration on the order of the square of each doubling of diopteric strength.  This means that there is roughly four times as much spherical aberration for a +35.00 diopter intraocular lens as there would be at an intraocular lens implant power of +17.50 diopters.

Many local governments throughout Europe lack a deep and detailed knowledge of the processes of polarisation in their territory. Research on polarisation and policy strategies to address it are fast developing, yet remain at an early stage. The resulting lack of clarity on definitions and concepts as well as the prevalence, dynamics, impacts and spatial and temporal distribution of such phenomena within a municipality’s or region’s territory is problematic because such information would ensure adequate allocation of resources as well as the development of effective prevention measures. Increasing knowledge and evidence on the topic of polarisation is thus of paramount importance.

The modulation transfer function (MTF) is an optical bench measurement used by engineers to evaluate the performance of a lens, or a lens system. In its most basic sense, the MTF is a way to describe the contrast sensitivity of a lens system. For the human eye, this could be though of as its “visual performance.”

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The fifth webinar of the PRACTICIES project was a presentation of the “Digital Me” tool developed by the Brussels-based association MAKS (Media Actie Kuregem) to encourage young people…

Modulationtransfer functionRadiology

As part of the BRIDGE project, local polarisation audits are being conducted in 13 European local authorities. Efus will make the feedback from these experiences and the resulting recommendations available to the whole network . It is an important first step to provide local authorities with tools to respond to this multifaceted and complex phenomenon, which is set to become an increasingly important aspect of urban security.

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Now back to the audio analogy.  Just as a typical sound is a mixture of many pure frequencies, optical images are also mixtures of many SWGs. The image of a single SWG has the same frequency and orientation as the original SWG, but the contrast is always decreased. The ratio of the image SWG contrast and the object SWG contrast is the transfer factor. The transfer factor is always between 0 and 1 and different frequencies have different transfer factors.  The graph of transfer factor vs. frequency is the modulation transfer function and is analogous to the frequency response curve of an audio system.

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Mtf transfer functionin optics

Polarisation as used in some academic literature refers to “the widening of the gap between specific groups of people in terms of their economic or social circumstances and opportunities” (Woodward 1995). In a more recent adaptation of the term, the EU Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN) refers to a “process where groups in society become adversaries when there is a sharp psychological division between ‘us and them’. Alienation and hostilities are growing, resulting in a political climate where prejudices, hate speech and even hate crime flourish” (RAN 2017).

Guilherme Pinto, President of Efus, reacts to the terrorist attacks that took place in France during the week of 7th January. It is with shock and dismay that…

Overall, improving the modulation transfer function of the human eye represents an attempt to achieve the best possible visual experience. The newest generation of intraocular lenses, such as the IQ lens attempt to do this based on the above scientific principles.

Most studies point out the fact that the weakening of social cohesion is a factor of polarisation: when citizens feel they are not listened to or heard, not represented in the institutions and power groups and left behind by the economy, they tend to take refuge in closed-off opinion groups that exclude all those perceived as “others”.

Unlike a sine wave grating, which gradually changes from dark to light, another pattern, known as Ronchi rulings, change abruptly and is instead is based on a square wave rather than a sine wave. Snellen figures (the standard visual acuity eye chart) are essentially Ronchi rulings. This is why Snellen acuity is such a poor way to asses visual performance. Contrast sensitivity testing, using charts that are basically SWGs, provides a more complete evaluation of visual performance, but this is a more complicated test to administer and is poorly understood by those outside of optics and ophthalmology, such as insurance companies.

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