MTFimage quality

Site Visibility is an intelligent, cloud-connected security solution that uses AI and computer vision to improve on-site operations. The bandwidth-friendly cloud-NVR connects third-party IP cameras to an AI-powered video management system so customers can gain granular visibility across all of their locations to streamline and simplify their daily operations.

PoE camera systems are IP camera systems—the only difference is that they use PoE cameras specifically. PoE cameras are a type of IP camera that can use a single Ethernet cable for both network access and electric power. This means just one cable is needed per camera, which increases the simplicity and flexibility of installation.

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You may have a worksite that is expansive or a remote site that you want real-time visibility into. If you want the convenience of viewing video on the go, look for a cloud NVR rather than an on-premise NVR. With cloud-hosted footage, managers can access all cameras and footage 24/7, from anywhere.

Image processing is commonly used for different applications,5,22,23 but only a few pre-processing steps are obvious to users of digital radiograph systems. This is often owing to unknown signal processing possibly implemented in the sensor or the proprietary software (Figure 5). Actually manufacturers are using many kinds of image processing (besides smoothing, binning and histogram adaptation) in pre-processing procedures, such as sharpening and gamma correction, without any regulation or standard. Higher spatial resolution leads to an increase of sensor elements per millimetre or inch. This can increase in quantum noise, thereby lowering SNR and image quality. This decrease in image quality can be improved by pre-processing. A high-sensor SNR combined with high resolution might be obtained by undocumented pre-processing and could change the quality of the resulting images. An example is seen in pixel binning, which is used by some manufacturers and reduces spatial resolution of a sensor.24 This study shows that MTF is not the optimal measure by which to characterize the effects of a median filter because small structures of fine-line patterns may be deleted (Figure 5). This can result in the deletion of fine image structures such as tips of endodontic files or small trabecular patterns. However, new filter techniques, such as wavelet domain filters, are available and can outperform the filters described here. These new filters may have less harmful effects on MTF.

Mtf functionformula

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Mtf functionin optical

The filters were realized in image processing software programmed in Borland C-Builder 6.0 (Borland GmbH, Langen, Germany) according to the filter algorithms found in the literature.5,13,14 For this study we chose the most common noise-suppression filters5,6 that are popular in current imaging software: two arithmetic mean filters with kernel sizes of 3 × 3 pixels and 5 × 5 pixels (mean 3 × 3, mean 5 × 5), two median filters with kernel sizes of 3 × 3 pixels and 5 × 5 pixels (median 3 × 3, median 5 × 5) and two Gaussian filters with kernel sizes of 3 × 3 pixels and 5 × 5 pixels (Gauss 3 × 3/0.4, Gauss 5 × 5/0.4) and an SD of 0.4. Test images were processed with each filter.

Image quality can be influenced by many factors. As demonstrated in this study, the use of noise filters can change SNR and MTF. The MTF describes how well an imaging system performs in depiction of fine structures with minimal blur. Image quality can be improved with increased signal strength and reduced noise levels as expressed in the SNR. Imaging theory decrees that the highest SNR will result in higher image quality and more accurate images.4 This article demonstrates that the simple application of small convolution filters can improve SNR significantly (Table 1). However, the use of noise filters led to a change of the MTF. Contrast and resolution changes of the filters can be directly read from the graphs because the MTF describes the ability of a system to depict small structures. The fitted functions follow the form y = A*ebx. Thus, the effects of the filters on blur can be construed directly. The filters resulting in a graph of the form y = 1 (like the unprocessed images) showed no change of resolution (besides known side effects17 and deletion of the bar’s edge pixels). The initial value of the function was A = 1 in this case. The term bx degraded to 0 (Appendix). This means MTF did not change for any resolution. The strongest MTF changes were found for the 5 × 5 arithmetic mean filter. The found graph has the expression y = 0.68e−0.76x. This means changes in contrast are even found for larger stripe patterns (A = 0.68). The graph y = 1.015e−0.98x calculated for the 5 × 5 Gaussian filter shows that the filter will preserve contrast better for larger stripe patterns. However, a stronger decrease in contrast (and an increase in blur) will result for higher spatial resolutions, as denoted by a value of b = −0.98. The linear filters with the 3 × 3 convolution kernels performed between the median filters and the linear filters with bigger kernels.

The authors would like to express their gratitude for constructive comments and suggestions by the reviewers. There are no potential conflicts of interest or sources of financial support.

The security cameras receiving power from PoE technology are internet protocol (IP) cameras. These digital video cameras send and receive data over the internet, like a webcam. But, unlike basic webcams, IP cameras have standalone IP addresses. You connect them to networks like you would computers and printers.

Modulation transfer function according to the resolution of measured line pattern. Frequency of line patterns was recorded as line pairs per mm (lp mm–1). The approximation of the graphs is only representative for the evaluated range. MTF, modulation transfer function

Low-pass filters are often used to remove noise from images obtained using digital sensors. They can be described as image algorithms that remove sudden discontinuities of grey levels in small local areas of the image. These low-pass filters, generally designated as linear filters, use convolution to compute images with a lower amount of noise. They are generally realized as spatial smoothing using convolution of the image and a smoothing kernel.5 Low-pass filters attenuate high frequencies, while low frequencies remain unchanged. This means that high spatial frequency components are removed from an image resulting in a smoother image in the spatial domain. Linear low-pass filters can be realized as an arithmetic mean filter, which smoothes an image by averaging all pixels within the convolution kernel and equal contribution of all pixels within that kernel. Another approach for a low-pass filter is the Gaussian filter. This filter works in a similar way to an arithmetic mean filter. The degree of smoothing is determined by the standard deviation (SD) of the Gaussian, which is used to compute the entries of the convolution kernel. The effect of a Gaussian filter is similar to that of a pyramid filter5 with more contribution of central pixels because of weighting through the entries of the convolution kernel. With a larger SD, Gaussian filters require larger convolution kernels to be represented accurately. This can lead to inadequate blurring while using larger convolution masks. Most smoothing filters based on convolution act as low-pass frequency filters. Another effective approach to noise reduction are rank order statistic filters usually referred to as non-linear filters, of which the median filter is one of the most commonly used.5,6 Non-linear filters are generally based on sorting algorithms in an attempt to determine median values that minimize local grey variance.5-7 A median filter removes drop-out noise more efficiently and preserves the edges and small details of an image better than an arithmetic mean filter. The purpose of a median filter is to eliminate intensity spikes, speckles or salt and pepper noise. Broadly, rank order filters are more effective for overcoming impulse noise.5-7

Samsara’s Site Visibility solution is a reliable, flexible PoE security camera system that captures high-quality footage. Our cloud NVR allows customers remote access to footage anytime, from anywhere. Our intelligent VMS offering brings powerful AI to any third-party IP security camera for enhanced worksite visibility. Search for specific incidents faster and spend less time monitoring footage using intelligent detections and alerting. With Samsara’s Site Visibility solution, you can:

The modulation transfer function (MTF) is a graphical description of the spatial resolution characteristics of an imaging system or its individual components. It is generally useful for separating individual causes of image degradation. Another related term is the contrast transfer function (CTF). MTF describes the response of an optical system to an image decomposed into sine waves and CTF describes the response of an optical system to an image decomposed into square waves (for example, an image of line pairs).1,2 The term MTF will be used in this article. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) generally refers to the dimensionless ratio of the signal power to the noise power contained in a signal. It parameterizes the performance of signal processing systems when noise is contained in a recording (or an image).3,4

Artificial stripe patterns were created with increasing stripe sizes to create defined test patterns for resolutions tests and MTF (Figure 1). The width of the stripes ranged from 1 pixel to 5 pixels (between 20 line pairs per millimetre and 4 line pairs per millimetre calculated upon the defined pixel size given in the synthetic image).

Deploying and scaling any security camera system is no easy feat, especially if you have hundreds or thousands of cameras across multiple locations. Choosing a PoE security camera system that’s easy to install is very important. By nature, PoE indoor/outdoor cameras are simple enough to install DIY-style since they only need one cable to connect with a PoE switch or injector. In addition, with some cloud-based security solutions, activation of your hardware is as simple as entering a serial number into cloud software.

PoE security camera systems provide higher quality video than analog camera systems. This is because digital cameras offer much higher resolutions. The highest resolution that analog cameras offer is 720 x 480 pixels. Contrast that with digital cameras, which start at 1280 x 1024 pixels (1.3 megapixels), and you can understand how much clearer videos are.

Analog camera systems were once the industry standard. Think CCTV cameras made famous on crime dramas. These surveillance cameras connect to a digital video recorder (DVR), which processes images. They need two cables: one for the power source and one for the DVR—usually via a coaxial cable. Analog cameras are still around today; however, most users prefer the newer technology found in IP cameras, including better video quality.

WiFi camera systems use wireless cameras that transmit or stream footage to a cloud-based server. As the name implies, WiFi systems are wireless, often using cameras powered by battery or solar power for the most flexibility. Many home security systems operate via WiFi, such as video doorbell cameras.

PoE stands for power over Ethernet. PoE is a system used for carrying electric power and data over copper Ethernet cabling—meaning just one cable is needed per camera. If you have hundreds or thousands of cameras, PoE can help reduce the complexity of installation and allow for more flexible camera placement since there is no need for separate power cords or outlets.

Look for an IVMS that offers advanced artificial intelligence (AI) features such as motion detection, and the ability to configure real-time alerts based on motion, people, or inactivity. AI-driven search tools—which make it possible to search camera streams by date, time, people detected, and more—can help you find important footage faster and streamline incident investigation.

Where denotes the mean value of some measure of signal strength the grey level in this case, defined as mean grey level g in the following, is the SD of the noise, or an estimate thereof the grey level SD defined as g.

PoE IP cameras capture more video site ranges, including narrow or wide fields of vision. They also have better zoom capabilities. And because IP cameras send digital signals, they offer better video details. Higher-quality footage helps when analyzing on-site activities or zooming into license plate numbers. Overall, PoE security camera systems allow for high resolution and fast transmission—without compromising network bandwidth.

Dr Brüllmann, Department of Oral Surgery, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Augustusplatz 2, 55131 Mainz, Germany. E-mail: bruellmd@mail.uni-mainz.de

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Simply connect a camera to an on-premise network PoE switch with an Ethernet cable, and plug the NVR into a network switch. Network switches come with multiple PoE ports, enabling you to set up and power four or more cameras from one device. PoE camera systems reduce cabling and streamline operations.

With so many PoE security camera systems on the market, it can be challenging to decide which system fits your needs best. When choosing a solution, look for these key features.

IP camera systems use wired internet protocol (IP) cameras to send video feeds to a network video recorder (NVR), which records and stores footage. Considered more powerful and reliable than WiFi systems, many business and industrial operations use IP security camera systems.

(a) Stripe patterns with defined amount of line pairs per mm and (b) test image with a uniform grey level of 20 and a defined amount of Gaussian noise (σ = 40)

Why not use a wireless surveillance system and be completely wire-free, like some home security cameras? Simply put, PoE security camera systems are more reliable and less susceptible to interrupted feeds. PoE power comes from a central power source rather than a collection of wall adapters or a battery. PoE systems can be backed up by an uninterruptible power supply, ensuring your cameras will still work in case of an outage.

Contrast. Contrast is really just a measure of the difference between the maximum and minimum pixel intensities in an image. So, in order to ...

With video technology already ubiquitous,  it’s no surprise that commercial security camera systems are also on the rise. Once used mainly for security purposes, worksite cameras now can help with various aspects of operations, including safety and process workflows, in addition to security monitoring.

where μ denotes the mean value of some measure of signal strength (the grey level in this case) and σ is the SD of the noise or an estimate thereof (the grey level's SD). To calculate SNR, mean grey values in four test images containing defined increasing amounts of Gaussian noise (SD = 10; SD = 20; SD = 30; SD = 40, respectively) were measured and documented using an Excel 2007 spreadsheet (Microsoft, Redmond, WA). SDs were also measured. SNR was plotted for all SDs. The modulation transfer function m can be defined as:

Although MTF can be calculated in different ways, the approach presented here is straightforward and can be easily replicated. Experimentally determined MTFs can be reasonably modelled by simple analytical approximations. The earliest of these to be used were simple exponential.15 Advantages of exponential fits are that they are easily calculated using least square fit methods16 and their direct interpretation. Exponentially fitted graphs relate relatively accurately to the sampled MTF in the evaluated range and the performance of the filters used towards blur can be read directly from the resulting terms. However the fits are not accurate to the sampled data at the end points of the approximated MTF curves.15 Therefore, combinations of Gaussian and exponential functions or other fitting methods have been introduced to model MTF curves.15,18 The exponential approximation of MTF allows good estimates of the resolution changes caused by digital filters.

Modulation transferfunctionRadiology

The Samsara Site Gateway is the powerhouse for a PoE security camera system. The plug-and-play cloud NVR hardware connects to our analytical engine, adding robust, real-time detections and AI features to any IP camera solution. Once installed, the gateway can connect up to 25  third-party cameras to the cloud and can monitor 30+ days of uninterrupted footage with minimal bandwidth utilization.

We’ve come a long way from grainy, pixelated camera footage. Today’s power over Ethernet (PoE) camera systems are a powerful, reliable, and cost-effective solution for companies and organizations looking to streamline their video security systems as much as possible.

Not every IP camera is a PoE camera. Some IP cameras need to be plugged into wall outlets. PoE only describes how certain IP cameras receive power.

The Gaussian filter with a 5 × 5 kernel produced the highest noise suppression based on SNR. The SNR increased from 2.22 in the synthetic image (with Gaussian noise amount of SD = 10) to 11.31 in the filtered image (for a synthetic noise amount of SD = 10). The 5 × 5 arithmetic mean filter and the 5 × 5 median filter followed closely (Table 1). The smallest noise reduction was found using the 3 × 3 median filter (Table 1). The median filters showed no changes in MTF at the different resolutions (the approximated graph was y = 1). Application of the 5 × 5 Gaussian filter and the 5 × 5 arithmetic mean filter resulted in the strongest changes in MTF (Figure 3). Approximated graphs were y = 0.68e−0.76x for the 5 × 5 arithmetic mean filter and y = 1.015e−0.98x for the 5 × 5 Gaussian filter. The graph found for the 3 × 3 Gaussian filter and the 3 × 3 arithmetic mean filter was y = 1.277e−0.76x (Table 2). With an unchanged MTF the application of median filters resulted in a deletion of small structures (Figure 4). Single lines on the outside of the 20 lp mm–1 stripe pattern were deleted and the overall size of all stripes was reduced.

where Imax denotes the maximum intensity (grey level) and Imin denotes the minimum intensity found in the region of interest.15 If we take a line profile of the pattern in Figure 1 we get a graph from which m can be calculated (Figure 2). For the raw set of black and white bars, the plot ranges from 0 to 255. This corresponds to the performance of an ideal sensor system without noise or applied image improvement. For the set of patterns obtained by filtering the test image, it is noted that the plot no longer reaches either 0 or 255 in the region of small bars. Thus, the modulation of the source is no longer faithfully reproduced in the filtered image. Modulation m was measured independently for all stripe patterns. For finer patterns with narrow black and white bars, m can reach 0. A uniform grey patch can result owing to image blurring. After filtering, MTF was plotted according to m and the corresponding line pairs per mm (lp mm–1) as diagrams using Excel 2007. MTFs of the different filters were characterized using exponential graphs in the form y = A*ebx (for explanation refer to Appendix).15,16 To fit the exponential graphs the standard exponential regression analysis function of Excel 2007 was used.

Power over Ethernet (PoE) is a way to power security cameras using an Ethernet cable. Because the cable provides network access in addition to power, the cable does double-duty. This guide explains what PoE security cameras are, why they’re beneficial, and what features to look for when evaluating PoE security camera systems.

To view video footage, you have several options. For example, you can connect a monitor directly to an on-premise NVR using a VGA or HDMI cable and a mouse via a USB port. Or, for remote viewing, you need to connect your NVR to the internet via a network router. Many of today’s NVRs also have WiFi support built-in, so you can easily connect the NVR to your existing WiFi network.

Different types of video surveillance systems function in different ways. The difference between systems comes down to the devices used and the type of cabling required. Here’s a brief overview of the different kinds of security camera systems:

Modulation transferfunctionformula

A video management system (VMS) provides an interface for users to interact with video footage, camera integrations, analytics, gateways, storage infrastructure, and more. When choosing your PoE security camera system, check if the vendor offers an intelligent video management system (IVMS). An IVMS offers more advanced features to help users increase efficiency and get more value out of their system.

Modulation transferfunctionin Ophthalmology

The noise in the radiographs is characterized by the SNR. A common definition of SNR is the ratio of the mean to the SD of a signal or measurement (Equation 1):

The aim of this study was to illustrate the influence of digital filters on the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and modulation transfer function (MTF) of digital images. The article will address image pre-processing that may be beneficial for the production of clinically useful digital radiographs with lower radiation dose.

PoE camera systems only need a few things to get up and running: PoE cameras, a PoE NVR, Ethernet cables, such as Cat 5 or Cat 6, and a network PoE switch. In analog camera setups, the cameras transmit video, and the DVR encodes and processes the video for viewing. IP cameras are the opposite. Instead, they do the heavy-lifting by processing images and then streaming it to the NVR, where it’s stored or viewed elsewhere.

MTFOptics

A 300 × 300 pixel synthetic test image with a uniform grey level (l = 20) was created to examine the noise- suppression ability of the different filters. This image was overlaid with synthetic Gaussian noise at SD of 10, 20, 30 and 40 according to the algorithm described by Parker12 (Figure 1). These images were sampled in a uniform 100 × 100 region of interest to calculate the mean and SD of the pixel values. The added Gaussian noise modifies grey levels by adding a random level of pixel values according to the normal Gaussian distribution.5 The Gaussian distribution can be defined by its mean and SD.

Stripe patterns after application of digital filters. The results of filters with 3×3 kernels are shown in the upper row with the larger 5×5 kernels below

If you have a cloud-based NVR (also sometimes called a network gateway), you can connect multiple cameras to a PoE switch or injector to distribute power and network connections. Then, you activate and connect your cameras and gateway through cloud-based software. Using viewing software, video management software (VMS), or mobile apps on Apple or Android devices, you can access and stream video feeds from anywhere.

Looking to learn more about how Samsara can benefit your on-site operations? Get in touch with our team today to learn more or get a free trial.

Samsara’s Site Visibility solution is ideal for organizations of all sizes that are looking to improve onsite operations and visibility. The cloud-NVR can connect to third-party PoE cameras, overlaying powerful AI and consolidating streams from across locations into a single dashboard.

Built on a hybrid-cloud architecture, the Site Gateway records and stores footage for 30 days. You're able to save specific video clips to the cloud or download footage to a hard drive for coaching or incident review. Plus, it only streams video footage to the cloud when someone is actively viewing a stream remotely, allowing the Site Gateway to be a bandwidth-conscious system.

Aside from video quality, one of the biggest drawbacks to analog camera systems is the cables required for operation. One cable is used for power, and another is used for network access. With PoE security camera systems, you’re using the same cable for both power and network access. You’re not limited to installing a camera near an electrical outlet, making it possible for you to scale your system faster. When you want to take the camera down or move it, you can simply move the Ethernet cable.

The application of digital filters can improve the SNR of a digital sensor; however, MTF can be adversely affected. As such, imaging systems should not be judged solely on their quoted spatial resolutions because pre-processing may influence image quality.

When reviewing video footage, crisp video quality is critical. Look for super HD PoE cameras, so recordings are clear. Also, check if the camera offers features like wide dynamic range (WDR). This feature optimizes video for bright and dark conditions. To capture broad viewing angles, look for a wide-angle or semi-wide angle lens.

Modulation transferfunctionimage processing

MTF analysis found that there is a change in the depiction of small structures caused by digital filters. This is why spatial resolution estimates based on picture element size are not able to consistently provide useful information regarding the actual spatial resolution of an imaging system. However, image processing is not the only cause of degradation of image quality; pixel cross-talk, quantum noise, dark current and unequal pixel efficiencies should also be taken into account.19-21 Within the study, only tests on synthetic images with Gaussian noise were conducted. However, there are numerous types of noise including fixed pattern noise, the type found on digital images acquired by CCD sensors where particular pixels are responsible for creating intensities brighter than the general background noise; and salt and pepper noise, which is typically found in images acquired by sensors containing pixels that have malfunctioned. These types of noise are optimally removed using median filters.

PoE security camera systems offer businesses and organizations many benefits. They often incorporate the newest technologies, providing a feature-rich system. Thanks to simpler cabling, they offer more flexibility than their analog counterparts but are also more robust due to IP PoE cameras’ capabilities. Here are some of the benefits of a PoE security camera system:

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Line profile of stripe patterns filtered with a 3 × 3 Gaussian filter. The corresponding intensities Imax and Imin are gathered according to the spatial resolution as denoted by the size of the stripe pattern

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Three filters, an arithmetic mean filter, a median filter and a Gaussian filter (standard deviation (SD) = 0.4), with kernel sizes of 3 × 3 pixels and 5 × 5 pixels were tested. Synthetic images with exactly increasing amounts of Gaussian noise were created to gather linear regression of SNR before and after application of digital filters. Artificial stripe patterns with defined amounts of line pairs per millimetre were used to calculate MTF before and after the application of the digital filters.

Here hg denotes the number of pixels with grey level g and M denotes the total number of pixels in the image. The mean grey level g can be calculated using the grey level density function Pg Equation 3 where L denotes the number of grey levels present in the image.

where Imax denotes the maximum intensity or grey level found in region of interest gmax and Imin denotes the minimum intensity or grey level gmin found in the region of interest.

Image processing is used for all digital images including digital radiographs. The filters described here are usually used to improve signals or images obtained by a charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensors used for image acquisition.7 Structures like noise or edges contain many high frequencies; thus, low-pass filters blur images while possibly improving the SNR. This explains why theoretically possible resolutions, calculated from the number of pixels per square millimetre, differ tremendously from the resolution seen during testing.8 The use of digital filters is believed to result in a reduction of exposure dose, and the use of a filter could potentially compensate for losses in image quality caused by underexposure or noise.9,10 On the other hand, poor processing of signals has been shown to degrade image quality and may render radiographs unacceptable for diagnostic purposes.11

In 2020, commercial property crime rose 37% across the U.S. While residential break-ins tend to happen during the day when owners are not home, burglaries and vandalism hit non-residential spaces at night. Monitoring unusual activity after work hours means capturing high-quality footage during low-light conditions. Do the cameras have night vision capabilities? For example, does the solution have an infrared (IR) illuminator? This tool creates infrared light and functions as a flashlight for cameras, helping ensure high-quality video capture at night.

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Here A denotes the initial value at position x0, while y denotes the value of the function found in position x and eb describes the growth of the function, which means a decrease for negative values of b.

This guide will discuss what PoE security camera systems are and how they differ from other systems. We’ll also show you features to look for when evaluating systems and discuss the key benefits of these solutions.

The Gaussian filter with a 5 × 5 kernel size caused the highest noise suppression (SNR increased from 2.22, measured in the synthetic image, to 11.31 in the filtered image). The smallest noise reduction was found with the 3 × 3 median filter. The application of the median filters resulted in no changes in MTF at the different resolutions but did result in the deletion of smaller structures. The 5 × 5 Gaussian filter and the 5 × 5 arithmetic mean filter showed the strongest changes of MTF.

Flowchart of common image processing steps in a system using a charge-coupled device sensor. The rounded rectangles in grey denote optional measures that can be used in the pre-processing steps to improve image quality before displaying it

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With a PoE security camera system, you’re also not bound by the coaxial cables used in analog security camera systems. Coaxial cables are wider than Ethernet cables and more rigid, making an analog system more difficult to deploy and less flexible.

In conclusion, the simple application of digital filters can improve the SNR of a digital sensor tremendously (Table 1; Figure 3). However, the MTF can be altered in an unfavourable manner, mainly by linear filters with larger convolution kernels (Table 2; Figure 4). Owing to a lack of any standard when using pre-processing, which can change resolution characteristics and image quality, imaging systems can lead to unknown loss of information.

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