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The oldest method that uses the camera-lens combination is the TV distortion method, created to analyze TV camera systems. This method requires a test chart with a regular grid of geometric structures such as those shown below.

Where: i is a suffix representing each picture width; αi, βi, and V shall be represented by the number of pixels in the output image.

A simple microscope or magnifying glass (lens) produces an image of the object upon which the microscope or magnifying glass is focused.

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This method is applicable when the vertical line Ai is located closer to the vertical line at the center of the image than to Bi, use formula 2: $$Dhi=\frac{\left(Bi-Ai\right)}{2V}\times100%$$

The TV distortion method is essentially a system that shows a steadily increasing distortion from the image center to the corners. The bending of a straight line in the original image is quantified at the image's top edge (see figures below). The ratio of the bending over the height of the image multiplied by 100 is the percentage of picture height distortion. This method is compliant with the process described in EBU Tech 3249 32493.

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The total line distortion is calculated as: $$\left|D_{\mathrm{line}}i\right|=\sqrt{\mathrm{Dh}\mathrm{i}^2+\mathrm{Dv}\ \mathrm{i}^2}%$$

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Use this method when the horizontal line αi is located closer to the horizontal line through the center of the image than to βi, use formula 4: $$Dvi=\frac{\left(\beta i-\alpha i\right)}{2V}\times100%$$

When measuring the local geometric distortion, we assume that the distortion close to the optical center is zero. Then you can calculate a regular grid based on the geometric positions of the nine structures (3x3) in the center of the image. This grid is expanded to the whole image and defines the nominal positions for each of the structures.

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Anti-reflection coatings are used to increase optical transmission performance and minimize ghost effects.

Image distortion is when the straight lines of an image appear to be deformed or curved unnaturally, creating different distortion types, including barrel, pincushion, and waveform. Distortion is often the result of the lens's geometrics and can significantly disrupt the image's quality.

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Specific lens systems (particularly small ones in mobile devices) will correct distortion at the maximum image height. These systems show the highest distortion level at lower distances from the optical center. The resulting type of distortion is often a mixture of barrel and pincushion distortion and is described with the term wave distortion.

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In general, rotationally symmetric optical systems function to form an image that is geometrically similar to the object. There are a few exceptions for some particular systems, such as fish-eye lenses, where geometric conditions are deliberately not maintained. Ideally, this function is accomplished according to the geometry of perspective projection. Deviations from the ideal image geometry are called distortion.

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ISO 903911 is the standard that defines methods to measure a lens that is separated from a camera. Sometimes, however, you cannot remove the lens from a camera (such as in a mobile phone), and thus the time-consuming methods described in ISO 9039 will not be adequate. As a result, ISO 178502 was introduced to define methods to measure distortion using a camera lens combination.

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Light microscopic techniques have significantly developed over the past 20 years & now provide an indispensable tool to study molecular events at subcellular level in order to gain temporal & spatial information at high resolution. To achieve optimal results, it is essential to carefully plan & carry out microscopy-based experiments, which requires the understanding of at least the basics of cell biology, sample preparation & fluorescence light microscopy.

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Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples & objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye).

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It is essential to test and analyze lens distortion to ensure high image quality. We recommend following ISO 17850 and using proper test charts to capture various images using different lens functions, e.g., zoom. We then suggest analyzing the results using evaluation software (e.g., iQ-Analyzer-X) to see where you can improve the camera system.

Image distortion occurs when the straight lines of an image appear to be deformed or curved unnaturally. There are three types of lens distortion called barrel, pincushion, and waveform (also known as mustache) distortion. It is important to note that distortion occurs differently depending on the lens system and whether the lens can or cannot be removed from the camera.

The local geometric distortion method is utilized when a single number for the distortion is not sufficient. In other words, we need a function for the distortion to correct the distortion in image processing. Keep in mind that when you need to address a specific image height, the local geometric distortion is more reliable.

Where: i   =   a suffix representing each picture height; Ai, Bi, and V shall be represented by the number of pixels from the output image.

Distortion commonly occurs from aberrations near the edges of an image. Each type of distortion usually develops through different variables. Barrel distortion, for example, is often the result of a lens at full zoom, while pincushion distortion occurs most often from telephoto lenses. Waveform distortion results from a large angle camera in zoom mode, combining both barrel and pincushion distortion.

If deriving a single number from the local geometric distortion, the maximum distortion measured for any of the image's geometric structures is the one that is reported.

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For systems with a wave distortion, the measured picture height distortion can be zero or close to zero even if a strong distortion is visible in the image. We can break down the line geometric distortion method into three different methods to measure these systems' distortion as specified in ISO 17850.

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Light microscopy is a general term used for any type of microscopy where light is being transmitted from a source which is on the opposite side of the sample, to the objective lens. Generally, the light is passed through a condenser to focus it on the sample to have maximum brightness. After the light has passed through the sample, it goes through the objective lens to magnify the image of the sample & then to the oculars, where the enlarged image is viewed.

Microscopists explore the relationships between structures & properties for a very wide variety of materials ranging from soft to very hard, from inanimate materials to living organisms, in order to better understand their behaviour.