[note 10] Barak Ariel, Alex Sutherland, Darren Henstock, Josh Young, Paul Drover, Jayne Sykes, Simon Megicks, and Ryan Henderson, “Report: Increases in Police Use of Force in the Presence of Body-Worn Cameras Are Driven by Officer Discretion: A Protocol-Based Subgroup Analysis of Ten Randomized Experiments,” Journal of Experimental Criminology 12 no. 3 (2016): 453-463.

[note 13] Lum also noted an increase in randomized controlled trials among the growing number of body-worn camera studies.

[note 9] Justin T. Ready and Jacob T.N. Young, “The Impact of On-Officer Video Cameras on Police-Citizen Contacts: Findings from a Controlled Experiment in Mesa, AZ,” Journal of Experimental Criminology 11 no. 3 (2015): 445-458.

Sulfuricacid

If you have hydrogen chloride in your eyes, remove contact lenses, irrigate the affected eye with lukewarm water for at least 10 to 15 minutes and seek medical advice. If you have inhaled or ingested hydrogen chloride, seek medical advice.

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The increasing use of body-worn cameras by law enforcement agencies has significantly outpaced the body of research examining the relationship between the technology and law enforcement outcomes. As detailed below, although early evaluations of this technology had limitations, some notable recent research has helped advance our knowledge of the impact of body-worn cameras.

HydrochloricacidpH

Quicker resolution. Body-worn cameras may lead to a faster resolution of citizen complaints and lawsuits that allege excessive use of force and other forms of officer misconduct. Investigations of cases that involve inconsistent accounts of the encounter from officers and citizens are often found to be “not sustained” and are subsequently closed when there is no video footage nor independent or corroborating witnesses. This, in turn, can decrease the public’s trust and confidence in law enforcement and increase perceptions that claims of abuse brought against officers will not be properly addressed. Video captured by body-worn cameras may help corroborate the facts of the encounter and result in a quicker resolution.

[note 4] Changes in the behavior of citizens may result from the presence of body-worn cameras on officers coupled with citizens being informed in certain encounters that they are being recorded. However, researchers have noted that this civilizing effect is complex and additional research is needed to examine the issue.

Low levels of naturally occurring hydrogen chloride may be breathed in from air. A lot of naturally occurring hydrogen chloride is removed by rain, which reduces levels in the air.

This article discusses the following grant “Research on the Impact of Technology on Policing Strategies,” grant number 2013-IJ-CX-0016

Email chemcompendium@ukhsa.gov.uk if you have any questions about this guidance or enquiries@ukhsa.gov.uk if you have any other questions.

An increasing number of studies have emerged to help fill knowledge gaps in the current body of research on body-worn cameras. Researchers at George Mason University noted that 14 studies have been completed and at least 30 others are currently examining the impact of body-worn cameras on various outcomes.[12] The most common outcomes examined include the impact of body-worn cameras on the quality of officer-citizen interactions measured by the nature of the communication, displays of procedural justice and professionalism, and misconduct or corruption; use of force by officers; attitudes about body-worn cameras; citizen satisfaction with law enforcement encounters; perceptions of law enforcement and legitimacy; suspect compliance with officer commands; and criminal investigations and law enforcement-initiated activity.[13]

Nitricacid

Strong solutions of hydrochloric acid are highly corrosive and can cause skin burns on contact; they may also damage the eyes. Dilute solutions may cause irritation to the eyes and skin. Drinking hydrochloric acid will burn the mouth, throat and stomach.

In a 2014 study funded by the Office of Justice Programs Diagnostic Center, researcher Michael White noted that earlier evaluations of body-worn cameras found a number of beneficial outcomes for law enforcement agencies.[5] The earliest studies conducted in the United Kingdom indicated that body-worn cameras resulted in positive interactions between officers and citizens and made people feel safer. Reductions in citizen complaints were noted, as were similar reductions in crime. The studies found that the use of body-worn cameras led to increases in arrests, prosecutions, and guilty pleas.[6] From an efficiency standpoint, the use of the technology reportedly enabled officers to resolve criminal cases faster and spend less time preparing paperwork, and it resulted in fewer people choosing to go to trial.

[note 1] Italics in quote are from original publication, Sir Robert Peel’s Principles of Law Enforcement 1829, Durham Constabulary, Durham, England.

In 2017, with NIJ support, researchers from CNA conducted a randomized controlled trial on 400 police officers in the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department. The research team found that officers with body-worn cameras generated fewer use-of-force reports and complaints from citizens compared to officers without body-worn cameras. Additionally, officers with body-worn cameras issued higher numbers of arrests and citations compared to officers without body-worn cameras.[11]

[note 12] Cynthia Lum, Christopher Koper, Linda Merola, Amber Scherer, and Amanda Reioux, “Existing and Ongoing Body Worn Camera Research: Knowledge Gaps and Opportunities” (New York: The Laura and John Arnold Foundation, 2015).

Hydrochloricacid

Hydrogen chloride is formed by human activities such as from coal-burning power stations and incinerators. Burning of fossil fuels produces hydrogen chloride, although the use of these fuels is decreasing so will be a minor source of hydrogen chloride emissions in the future. Hydrogen chloride is also formed in large quantities when materials such as plastics or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are burnt. Volcanoes also produce hydrogen chloride.

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: psi@nationalarchives.gov.uk.

Asthmatics or individuals with other breathing problems may be more sensitive to the effect of hydrogen chloride on the airways.

If you have got hydrogen chloride on your skin, remove soiled clothing (not over the head), wash the affected area with lukewarm water and soap for at least 10 to 15 minutes and seek medical advice.

At room temperature, hydrogen chloride exists as either a colourless or slightly yellow gas. It is heavier than air and has a strong pungent odour. Hydrogen chloride will dissolve in water to form hydrochloric acid.

In 1829, Sir Robert Peel — regarded by many as the father of modern policing — developed what came to be known as the Nine Principles of Law Enforcement, which were given to British law enforcement officers as general instructions. Peel’s second principle stated, “The ability of the police to perform their duties is dependent upon public approval of police existence, actions, behavior and the ability of the police to secure and maintain public respect.”[1]

Hydrochloricacidcharge

This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/hydrogen-chloride-properties-incident-management-and-toxicology/hydrogen-chloride-hydrochloric-acid-general-information

[note 8] Barak Ariel, William A. Farrar, and Alex Sutherland, “The Effect of Police Body-Worn Cameras on Use of Force and Citizens’ Complaints against the Police: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 31 no. 3 (2015): 509-535.

Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned.

Hydrogen chloride, in the form of hydrochloric acid, may be added to water supplies or swimming pools to change the pH and prevent scale formation. Its use in swimming pools is tightly controlled and due to the acid being neutralised, does not present a health hazard.

Children are likely to be affected by hydrogen chloride in the same way as adults. Hydrochloric acid containing products in the home should be stored in an appropriate container and kept out of the reach of children.

Nearly 200 years later, Peel’s principle still holds true: The ability of law enforcement to fight crime effectively continues to depend on the public’s perception of the legitimacy of the actions of officers. A number of recent civil disturbances across the United States subsequent to instances of lethal use of force by officers highlight the ongoing challenges in maintaining the public’s perceptions of law enforcement legitimacy, particularly as it concerns the use of force.

Current research varies by level of rigor and methods used, but the results continue to help law enforcement executives decide whether to adopt this technology in their agencies. Overall, the research on body-worn cameras suggests that the technology may offer potential benefits for law enforcement. However, the true extent of its value will depend on the continuation of research studies to keep pace with the growing adoption and implementation of body-worn cameras by law enforcement agencies in the United States.

Increased civility. Body-worn cameras may also result in higher rates of citizen compliance to officer commands during encounters and fewer complaints lodged against law enforcement. Citizens often change their behavior toward officers when they are informed that the encounter is being recorded. This “civilizing effect” may prevent certain situations from escalating to levels requiring the use of force and also improve interactions between officers and citizens.[4]

This technology has diffused rapidly across the United States. In 2013, approximately one-third of U.S. municipal police departments had implemented the use of body-worn cameras.[2] Members of the general public also continue to embrace the technology. But what does the research tell us? Current studies suggest that body-worn cameras may offer benefits for law enforcement, but additional research is needed to more fully understand the value of the technology for the field.

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[note 6] The use of body-worn cameras was found to be particularly helpful in improving the overall strength of prosecution cases involving domestic violence because the cameras documented the victims’ demeanor and language and recorded the crime scenes and overall emotional effects on the victims.

[note 2] Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments, 2013: Equipment and Technology, Bulletin, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, July 2015, NCJ 248767.

There is little evidence on the effects of exposure to hydrogen chloride during pregnancy. Therefore, is not possible to draw any definitive conclusions. Effects on the unborn child are more likely to occur at levels that harm the mother.

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[note 7] Charles Katz, David Choate, Justin Ready, and Lidia Nuno, “Evaluating the Impact of Officer Worn Body Cameras in the Phoenix Police Department” (Phoenix, AZ: Center for Violence & Community Safety, Arizona State University, 2015).

Hydrochloricacidformula

Hydrogen chloride has many industrial uses such as cleaning, pickling and electroplating metals, tanning leather, refining soap as well as for making vinyl chloride, fertilizers, artificial silk, dyes and pigments for paint. It is also used in the photographic, textile and rubber industry. It may be found as an ingredient in some cleaning products available in the UK.

The presence of hydrogen chloride in the environment does not always lead to exposure. In order for it to cause any adverse health effects you must come into contact with it. You may be exposed to hydrogen chloride by breathing it. You may be exposed to hydrochloric acid by drinking it, or by contact with your skin or eyes. Following exposure to any chemical, the adverse health effects you may encounter depend on several factors, including the amount to which you are exposed (dose), the way you are exposed, the duration of exposure, the form of the chemical and if you were exposed to any other chemicals.

Hydrogen chloride

Due to hydrogen chloride being used in a number of industrial settings, occupational exposure is more common. Exposure mainly occurs through malfunctions or accidental releases. However, safe limits are enforced to protect the employees; such levels are below those that are thought to cause harmful effects.

Exposure to hydrogen chloride may occur following contact with cleaning products that contain it; however, exposure is likely to be minimal if the products are used appropriately.

Corroborating evidence. Footage captured may also be used as evidence in arrests or prosecutions. Proponents have suggested that video captured by body-worn cameras may help document the occurrence and nature of various types of crime, reduce the overall amount of time required for officers to complete paperwork for case files, corroborate evidence presented by prosecutors, and lead to higher numbers of guilty pleas in court proceedings.

Recent randomized controlled trials, which are considered the scientific gold standard for evaluating programs, have also been conducted on body-worn cameras. Of the various scientific methods available, these trials have the greatest likelihood of producing sound evidence because random assignment is able to isolate a specific treatment of interest from all of the other factors that influence any given outcome. In a 2016 global, multisite randomized controlled trial, Barak Ariel and colleagues found that use-of-force incidents may be related to the discretion given to officers regarding when body-worn cameras are activated during officer-citizen encounters. The researchers found decreases in use-of-force incidents when officers activated their cameras upon arrival at the scene. Alternatively, use-of-force incidents by officers with body-worn cameras increased when the officers had the discretion to determine when to activate their cameras during citizen interactions.[10]

[note 11] Anthony Braga, James R. Coldren, William Sousa, Denise Rodriguez, and Omer Alper, The Benefits of Body-Worn Cameras: New Findings from a Randomized Controlled Trial at the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, December 2017.

Over time, scientific rigor improved, and studies conducted in U.S. law enforcement agencies produced findings that indicated promising support for body-worn cameras. For example, in 2014, researchers at Arizona State University (funded through the Bureau of Justice Assistance’s Smart Policing Initiative) found that officers with body-worn cameras were more productive in terms of making arrests, had fewer complaints lodged against them relative to officers without body-worn cameras, and had higher numbers of citizen complaints resolved in their favor.[7] Another study conducted with the Rialto (California) Police Department noted similar decreases in citizen complaints lodged against officers wearing body-worn cameras as well as decreases in use-of-force incidents by the police.[8] In addition, Justin Ready and Jacob Young from Arizona State University found that officers with body-worn cameras were more cautious in their actions and sensitive to possible scrutiny of video footage by their superiors. Also, contrary to initial concerns, officers who wore cameras were found to have higher numbers of self-initiated contacts with community residents than officers who did not wear cameras.[9]

Studies that followed in the United States also provided support for body-worn cameras; however, a number of them were plagued with dubious approaches that called the findings into question. According to White, the few studies that were conducted between 2007 and 2013 had methodological limitations or were conducted in a manner that raised concerns about research independence. For example, several studies included small sample sizes or lacked proper control groups to compare officers wearing body-worn cameras with officers not wearing them. Some studies were conducted by the participating law enforcement agency and lacked an independent evaluator. Finally, a number of the studies focused narrowly on officer or citizen perceptions of body-worn cameras instead of other critical outcomes, such as citizen compliance and officer or citizen behavior in instances involving use of force.

Better transparency. First, body-worn cameras may result in better transparency and accountability and thus may improve law enforcement legitimacy. In many communities, there is a lack of trust and confidence in law enforcement. This lack of confidence is exacerbated by questions about encounters between officers and community members that often involve the use of deadly or less-lethal force. Video footage captured during these officer-community interactions might provide better documentation to help confirm the nature of events and support accounts articulated by officers and community residents.[3]

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However, knowledge gaps still exist. The George Mason University researchers highlighted the need to examine organizational concerns regarding body-worn cameras. For example, little attention has been focused on improvements in training and organizational policies. Additional information is also needed on how body-worn cameras can help facilitate investigations of officer-involved shootings or other critical incidents, and on the value of video footage captured by body-worn cameras in court proceedings.

[note 3] Michael D. White, Police Officer Body-Worn Cameras: Assessing the Evidence, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2014.

Body-worn cameras have been viewed as one way to address these challenges and improve law enforcement practice more generally. The technology, which can be mounted on an officer’s eyeglasses or chest area, offers real-time information when used by officers on patrol or other assignments that bring them into contact with members of the community. Another benefit of body-worn cameras is their ability to provide law enforcement with a surveillance tool to promote officer safety and efficiency and prevent crime.

Breathing in low levels of hydrogen chloride for a short period of time can cause irritation to the nose and throat, causing coughing and shortness of breath. Exposure to higher concentrations of hydrogen chloride can also cause headache, fever wheeze, a rapid heart rate and confusion. In serious cases the airways may be damaged and a condition called pulmonary oedema where fluid builds up in the lungs, may develop. Following severe injuries from inhaling hydrogen chloride, there may be lasting effect on the lungs and airways. Hydrogen chloride gas is not absorbed through the skin but when it comes into contact with moisture (such a sweat), it forms hydrochloric acid which is highly irritating and corrosive.

NIJ has continued to review the available evidence on the effectiveness of body worn cameras, including rating programs and practices on CrimeSolutions. See Research on Body-Worn Cameras and Law Enforcement.

Training opportunities. The use of body-worn cameras also offers potential opportunities to advance policing through training. Law enforcement trainers and executives can assess officer activities and behavior captured by body-worn cameras — either through self-initiated investigations or those that result from calls for service — to advance professionalism among officers and new recruits. Finally, video footage can provide law enforcement executives with opportunities to implement new strategies and assess the extent to which officers carry out their duties in a manner that is consistent with the assigned initiatives.