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In November 2018, the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) published a report on the use of body-worn cameras by law enforcement agencies in the United States in 2016.[2] This report showed that:
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The primary sources of sulphuric acid emissions are manufacturing, coal-fired power plants, petroleum and coal product refining and non-conventional oil extraction (including oil sands). These emissions are mostly to the air, with total air releases of 3485 tonnes in 2020. Electric power facilities, the manufacturing industry and pulp and paper plants discharged a combined 71 tonnes to water in 2020. A combined 16 tonnes of sulphuric acid was released to land from the mining and manufacturing industries. When burned, the sulphur content in fossil fuels is mostly converted into sulphur dioxide (SO2), which can further oxidize into sulphur trioxide (SO3) and then react with water to form sulphuric acid.
VGA, HD 720P, and 1080 HD are predominant standard resolutions. The higher the resolution, the more storage is needed. Estimates below were created assuming H.264 compression with medium to high motion at 30 frames per second (fps) derived using a heuristic formula widely used in industry. Actual storage utilized is dependent on scene complexity and the motion of the video captured. Consider what sort of analysis may be conducted on the video before selecting a resolution. For example, if forensic video analysis is anticipated, a resolution less than VGA is not recommended.
Based on these reviews and the existing research on the impact of body-worn cameras use, it is clear that further research is essential to determine the value of body-worn cameras use and potentially the more effective ways body-worn cameras could be deployed. Given the growing use of body-worn cameras, it would be best to build in rigorous evaluations as law enforcement agencies expand their use of this technology.
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Every year, businesses, institutions and other facilities across Canada must report their releases and disposals of pollutants to air, water and land to the National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI). The publicly available information helps the government set environmental priorities and monitor environmental performance. It also provides Canadians with an opportunity to learn about pollution in their neighbourhoods.
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[note 3] Lum, C., et al, Research on body-worn cameras: What we know, what we need to know, Criminology & Public Policy, pp. 93 – 118, March 24, 2019
[note 6] Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technology, Recommendations and Guidelines for Using Closed-Circuit Television Security Systems in Commercial Institutions, Version 3.0, June 8, 2012.
Body-worn cameras are widely used by state and local law enforcement agencies in the United States. They are worn principally by officers in the performance of duties that require open and direct contact with the public. Despite their widespread and growing adoption, the current evidence regarding the effectiveness of body-worn cameras is mixed. Some studies suggest that body-worn cameras may offer benefits while others show either no impact or possible negative effects. The mixed results of these studies strongly imply that additional research is needed. In particular, more studies employing randomized control trials [1] are needed.
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[note 4] CrimeSolutions is the NIJ-funded federal clearinghouse of evaluation research, showing what works, what does not work, and what is promising across broad expanses of criminal and juvenile justice programs and practice. Learn more about CrimeSolutions.
The government has also set regulations to help protect the environment from hazardous substances. The Environmental Emergency Regulations, 2019 is designed to reduce the frequency and severity of accidental releases of hazardous substances into the environment, including fuming sulphuric acid, sulphur trioxide and sulphur dioxide, which are considered an inhalation hazard. Facilities that have these substances and meet the concentration, quantity and/or container capacity thresholds must report any environmental emergency and may require an environmental emergency plan to better prepare, respond and recover from an emergency.
Agencies should consider how body worn cameras will meet their mission needs and requirements prior to procurement and use of the technology. To provide general guidance to law enforcement practitioners, NIJ, NIST and the FBI developed a table listing operating characteristics and associated functionality descriptions based on existing technical resources about criminal justice use of video.[5],[6] The operating characteristics and associated functionality descriptions in the table can help agencies determine what they need as they consider the commercial products available.
Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.
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[note 5] Home Office Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Body-Worn Video Technical Guidance (pdf, 10 pages), May 2014
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is part of the NPRI’s substance overview series. This substance overview explores releases, disposals and transfers of sulphuric acid that are reported to the NPRI by various industries in Canada. It also summarizes what facilities do to mitigate their environmental impacts.
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NPRI facilities must report the destination of off-site transfers for treatment prior to final disposal, recycling and energy recovery. The majority (93%) of sulphuric acid off-site transfers in 2020 were reported as the recovery of acids and bases. Certain facilities, such as petroleum refineries, will recover sulphur content of fossil fuels by turning it into sulphuric acid. Sulphur dioxide is converted into sulphur trioxide through catalytic oxidation. The sulphur trioxide is then absorbed in a strong sulphuric acid solution. The recuperated acid is sent to processing facilities to be used in a variety of industries.
[note 2] Hyland, S., Body-Worn Cameras in Law Enforcement Agencies, 2016, Bureau of Justice Statistics, November 2018. Note that this survey excluded federal agencies, sheriffs’ offices with only jail or court duties, and special-purpose agencies such as transit police and campus police.
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Map showing sulphuric acid releases reported to the NPRI in 2020. Each dot represents a facility and is colour coded by industry type.
An important step in reducing the amount of sulphuric acid from entering the environment is by reducing the releases of sulphur dioxide. A number of technologies have been implemented within facilities to prevent these releases at the source. Emissions of sulphuric acid and sulphur oxides from flue gas can be abated through different methods such as wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, air heaters and others methods. For example, a coal power plant may spray limestone slurry in a flue gas desulphurization unit to convert sulphur oxides into gypsum, a material used for drywall. Alternatively, reductions in sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid have been achieved by closing fossil fuel electricity generating stations and replacing electricity production with cleaner methods.
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According to the 2018 BJS report, the main reasons (about 80% each) that local police and sheriffs’ offices had acquired body-worn cameras were to improve officer safety, increase evidence quality, reduce civilian complaints, and reduce agency liability.
Research does not necessarily support the effectiveness of body-worn cameras in achieving those desired outcomes. A comprehensive review of 70 studies of body-worn cameras use found that the larger body of research on body-worn cameras showed no consistent or no statistically significant effects.[3] This meta-analysis was rated by CrimeSolutions and resulted in a No Effects rating for the impact of body-worn cameras on use of force, assaults on officers, officer-initiated calls for service, arrests, traffic stops and tickets, and field interviews (i.e., stop and frisk). See Practice Profile: Body-Worn Cameras’ Effects on Police Officer Behavior. This profile is based on a meta-analysis published in 2020.
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Total releases of sulphuric acid have decreased since 1995. This is in part due to the closure of coal-fired power plants across Canada as well as the implementation of pollution prevention infrastructure and technologies at fossil fuel power plants and metals manufacturing and refining facilities. Ontario eliminated coal-fired electricity production by 2014, and the federal government announced regulations in 2018 to phase out traditional coal-fired electricity by 2030. In 2020, 3577 tonnes of sulphuric acid were released as reported to the NPRI, a reduction of 52% since 1995.
Map showing sulphuric acid transfers destinations and quantities reported to the NPRI in 2020. Each dot represents a facility and lines showing quantities transferred.
This map show the location of facilities that have reported sulphuric acid to the NPRI in 2020. Each dot represents a facility and is colour coded by industry type.
When released to air, the sulphuric acid droplets can dissolve in water in the atmosphere and fall to the ground through precipitation. This is called wet deposition or acid rain. Dry deposition can also occur when acidic particles directly deposit from the atmosphere onto ground surfaces such as water, vegetation and buildings. Both types of deposition can corrode surfaces, burn plants and animals, and increase the acidity of lakes and streams. Sulphuric acid is toxic to aquatic life but is not persistent or bioaccumulative. Ecosystems that do not have sufficient natural alkalinity to neutralize acidic deposits, such as areas that are part of the Canadian Shield, are more vulnerable to acid deposition.
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Facilities that handle, use, store or emit sulphuric acid can also incorporate Pollution Prevention activities to reduce the chances of accidental spills and reduce waste. Examples of pollution prevention activities from NPRI facilities include:
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Sulphuric acid is a colorless, odorless liquid composed of sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen. It is the most commonly produced chemical in the world and is used in a wide variety of industries. In 2020, Canada was the largest exporter of sulphuric acid in the global market. Sulphur, needed to produce sulphuric acid, is a by-product of sulphide minerals in metal ores such as copper, lead, iron and zinc and fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Sulphur is recovered as sulphuric acid during the oil and natural gas refining process and from metal smelting. Most of the sulphuric acid recovered this way is transferred for processing to be used in a variety of industries:
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Despite its myriad of uses, sulphuric acid is a highly corrosive substance that may harm environmental and human health. Therefore, facilities that manufacture, produce or otherwise use 10 tonnes or more of sulphuric acid must report to the National Pollutant Release Inventory. Sulphuric acid can enter the environment from direct industrial emissions and spills and is formed by the reaction of sulphur dioxide with water in the atmosphere. For more information on sulphur dioxide, its sources of releases and effects on the environment, please visit the NPRI report on sulphur dioxide.
Developed by the NIJ-funded NLECTC Sensor, Surveillance and Biometric Technologies Center of Excellence, A Primer on Body-Worn Cameras for Law Enforcement provides an introduction to body-worn camera systems. The report discusses the functions and features of body-worn camera systems and highlights issues and factors that law enforcement organizations should consider before and during implementation.
These mixed findings are further reflected in findings from evaluations of ten body-worn camera programs that have met the stringent criteria for inclusion in NIJ’s CrimeSolutions, see Table 1.[4] Across these evaluations, researchers looked at a range of outcomes, including use of force, citizen complaints, arrests, and assaults on officers. Four of the body-worn camera programs evaluated were found to have no, limited, or even negative effects.
[note 1] RCTs provide the highest degree of confidence that observed effects are the result of the program and not of other factors.
Map showing sulphuric acid disposals and transfers reported to the NPRI in 2020. Each dot represents a facility and is colour coded by industry type.
Sulphuric acid is a ubiquitous chemical with multiple uses and is found in a large variety of industrial sectors across Canada. In total, 367 facilities from various sectors reported sulphuric acid in their 2020 NPRI report. The manufacturing industry accounts for 76% of the facilities that report sulphuric acid to the NPRI, electricity-generating stations account for another 11% and various other sectors such as waste treatment, resource extraction and dry cleaning services form the remaining facilities. In 75 of these facilities, sulphuric acid may have been consumed in the manufacture of the product, recycled, reused or neutralized, which wouldn’t trigger any releases, disposals or off-site transfers. While these facilities are still required to report since they meet the thresholds for manufacturing, producing or using the substance in sufficient quantities, they have managed not to release any amount into the environment.
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Sulphuric acid’s highly corrosive and acidic nature can lead to severe burns when coming into contact with skin and eyes and must require immediate care. Exposure to sulphuric acid as a mist can cause irritation of the throat and lungs and high levels can cause buildup of fluid in the lungs. Strong-inorganic-acid mists containing sulphuric acid are carcinogenic to humans. Workers in industries that use or produce sulphuric acid are at risk of exposure and must follow proper handling and storage practices to prevent accidental contact. Consumers can be exposed when handling products that contain sulphuric acid such as certain cleaning products or batteries. The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety provides additional information on sulphuric acid hazards in the workplace.
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In 2020, 134,919 tonnes of sulphuric acid were reported as eliminated or transferred, including 125,006 tonnes transferred for acid recovery. The amount transferred represents nearly 90% of the sulphuric acid reported to the NPRI. Sulphuric acid can often be recuperated and reused or sent off-site for recovery or treatment. While sulphuric acid is occasionally disposed through underground injection, the vast majority is sent off-site for the recovery of acid.
You can identify the facilities and pollutants in your community by exploring the various data products located on the NPRI webpage.
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