Research on the safety of Tasers has primarily been conducted on animals, rather than humans. When research has been conducted on humans, they have been deemed medically healthy. While Tasers may be used without injury on some individuals, there are vulnerable populations on whom Tasers should be used with caution. A 2004 review of Taser technology by British Columbia’s police complaint commissioner indicated that risk factors for death by Taser include drug-induced toxic states (cocaine, alcohol, etc.) and “acute psychiatric decompensation.”14

Unsurprising then that the San Francisco board of supervisors’ 8-3 vote to permit police to use lethally-armed machines in certain extreme cases would be controversial and spark protests, generating international attention from the news media. It is equally unsurprising that the board of supervisors should put plans for armed robots on pause while the debate continues.

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A number of barriers have been identified that pose challenges to police dealing with people who have a mental illness.21 These include not having advance information from dispatch that the person may have a mental illness, or what they might expect upon arrival at the scene. More fundamentally, lack of adequate education about mental illness is a reality that impacts police officers’ ability to carry out their work with this vulnerable population. Police require customized training regarding how to identify situations involving mental illness, as well as how to communicate and intervene so as to minimize the use of force and maximize the likelihood that individuals with a mental illness are able to access the services they require. Evidence suggests that identifying a specific group of police officers to receive training and respond to mental health crisis is most beneficial, as these individuals will then have the mandate to utilize and update their skills on a regular basis.22

Western democracies are perhaps the last places that need to worry about armed police robots. But the fact that the technology now exists and can be ordered off the shelf (or easily copied) is likely to make it attractive to authoritarian regimes with fewer checks on police powers. Expect to see a lot more armed robots in the air and on the streets in the years ahead.

The 5.56mm rifle can also carry an underbarrel grenade launcher, or a quad pack of grenade launchers, which can fire a full range of 40mm grenades. These include nonlethal options such as tear gas and smoke to disperse crowds.

Meanwhile though, away from the glow of the world’s media, a very different scenario is unfolding in Nigeria. Turkish drone makers Asisgard recently announced the completion of their contract to supply the Nigerian police force with Songar armed drones. The number of drones involved and the value of the contract were not stated.

Asisgard has been pushing Songar in the export market and has several more customers for Songar lined up, having reportedly signed deals with two more African countries and one in the Asia-Pacific region. It is not known whether these drones will be for police or military use.

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The Taser is one of several use-of-force weapons that police officers may use to subdue or restrain an individual, to reduce the risk of injury or death to both the individual and the responding officer. The Taser is often represented as an alternative to the use of lethal force by police.

In reviewing the available literature, the Commission for Public Complaints Against the RCMP examining RCMP use of Tasers determined:

Amnesty International indicates that international standards and codes of conduct for law enforcement officials prescribe that the deployment of non-lethal weapons require standard evaluation and control of use protocols.13

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The Turkish Songar drones will give Nigerian police significant new capability to locate suspects from the air, track and engage them without putting offers at risk. Whether they have any impact depends on the police’s ability to make effective use of novel high-tech equipment; the drones only have an effective range of a couple of miles, so they will need to be in the right place at the right time.

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The issue of armed police robots is a contentious one. And while the U.S. is pulling back from the idea, Nigeria’s national police have just received their first shipment of armed drones from Turkey.

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Recent news in Nigeria shows just why police would want this type of weaponry, as they are fighting what looks like a literal war against large gangs of heavily armed criminals. In one series of attacks earlier this year, gangsters on motorcycles rode through villages, killing over 200 people. The gangs typically kidnap people for ransom and steal cattle. In 2021, gangs in Nigeria reportedly killed more than 2,600 people. Security forces said they killed 537 ‘armed bandits’ in one region alone 2021.

Conducted Energy Weapons (commonly known as Tasers) are one of several use-of-force weapons that police may use to subdue or restrain an individual. CMHA Ontario is concerned about the use and safety of Tasers, as well as the propensity of law enforcement officials to deploy them on people experiencing a mental health crisis. This paper identifies our position on use of Tasers and recommends first response alternatives police can use to engage with people experiencing a mental health crisis. (June, 2008)

Ontario’s Use of Force Model does not make allowance or offer guidance to police officers when encountering individuals who may be experiencing a mental health crisis and by virtue of their condition may not appear cooperative, due to hallucinations, delusions or other symptoms. However, other options are available, and mental health crisis intervention is the preferred approach for police to de-escalate such encounters.

While these armed robots are not autonomous, just remote-controlled by a human operator, like the Reapers and other drones used by the military, the decision is seen as a victory for the campaign against killer robots and other groups concerned about the use of deadly force being dehumanized.

The symptoms associated with excited delirium, while not a true mental health condition included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), appear to be similar to some of the behavioural symptoms exhibited by individuals experiencing a mental health crisis.

In 2016, Dallas police strapped a bomb to one of their robots and used it to blow up an active shooter after five officers had been killed and seven wounded. This provoked a major backlash about police use of force but ultimately no charges were brought against the police.

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In January 2007, the South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority Police Service announced that it would arm police patrolling Vancouver’s TransLink public transit system with Tasers.10 After reviewing ten cases of Taser deployment on the transit system, accessed under freedom of information legislation, the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association identified four cases where there appeared to be no significant threat to individual or public safety. One case involved the use of a Taser when the suspect attempted to flee for fare evasion.11 This practice is concerning and may set a precedent in other provinces.

There are no comprehensive national or provincial records regarding how many police officers are carrying Tasers. Most police services are not publicly reporting incidents involving Taser use and outcomes.

…that there is a distinct lack of research nationally and internationally that thoroughly examines the connection between CEW use, excited delirium and the likelihood of death. Medical research is still in the early stages of reviewing this condition. What little is known of this condition suggest the need for a more conservative course of action with respect to the deployment of CEWs against vulnerable populations (people experiencing mental health crises, those suffering from drug toxicity and those exhibiting symptoms of excited delirium). The research suggests that these populations have a higher likelihood of death, not necessarily as a result of the use of force or restraint employed, but because of the mental or medical condition of the person at the time of police intervention.15

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Canadian Mental Health Association, Ontario is concerned about the use and safety of Tasers, as well as the propensity of law enforcement officials to deploy Tasers on people experiencing a mental health crisis or demonstrating signs of emotional distress.

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This finding is especially significant given increased cardiovascular vulnerability among people with serious mental illness. People with a mental illness appear to be at greater risk of developing irregular heartbeats (arrhythmia)17 and coronary heart disease.18 In addition, people taking antipsychotic medication have been found to have a 2.4 times greater risk of sudden cardiac arrest and death.19

The Songar is a small drone with eight rotor blades carrying an automatic rifle on a stabilized mount, which was first delivered to the Turkish military in 2019. The developers claim that the advanced aiming system’s recoil compensation and stabilization allow it to hit a target six inches across from two hundred meters.

Some people with a mental illness who are in crisis will come in contact with police officers. Section 17 of Ontario’s Mental Health Act, R.S.O. 1990, gives police officers the authority to bring someone to a medical facility for assessment if the officer has “reasonable and probable grounds” to believe a person has acted in a “disorderly manner” if the person is believed to have a mental disorder, has threatened or attempted to harm themselves, has behaved violently or caused someone to fear bodily harm, or has shown an inability to care for themselves.20

All police officers in Ontario must have basic training in use of force. The Ontario Use of Force Model (2004) directs that officers shall continuously assess each encounter and select the most reasonable option for action, relative to the circumstance.8 The use of force continuum provides guidelines to incremental increases in use of force. The five stages of the continuum are: officer presence, verbal communication, physical control, intermediate weapons (using non-lethal chemical, electronic or impact weapons on an individual) and lethal force (using any force likely to cause permanent injury or death).

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The Canadian Association of Chiefs of Police has prepared guidelines for police programs and services for people with mental illness and the mental health system, that include, but are not limited to, developing effective and compassionate crisis response.24

Some police services in Ontario have received training and participate in mental health crisis intervention teams. These teams consist of police officers and mental health workers acting together to respond to individuals experiencing a mental health crisis. This partnering offers the expertise of both professions.

It is estimated that there have been 270 deaths worldwide, including 17 Canadian deaths, proximal to Taser use since 1999.5 It is not possible to accurately count deaths, as there is no independent central registry in existence to monitor incidents and adverse events, and there remains controversy, as there is no conclusive proof that Tasers directly cause death. Many police services, coroners and researchers are suggesting Taser-associated deaths may be related to a condition referred to as “excited delirium,” but no conclusive evidence has yet been established. The Canadian Police Research Centre describes excited delirium as a potentially fatal state of extreme mental and physiological excitement that is characterized by extreme agitation, hyperthermia, hostility, exceptional strength, and endurance without apparent fatigue.6 This condition was first described as early as 1982, when investigators were examining unexplained deaths due to physical restraint by police.7 It has been hypothesized that excited delirium generates an extreme state of physiological arousal that places individuals at greater risk of death.

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Turkey has become a real player in the drone export business in recent years. Turkish Bayraktar TB2 drones have been hailed as heroes in the war in Ukrainian, and are credited with tipping the balance in the 2020 conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan. More controversially, Turkish-supplied Kargu drones are claimed to have been used in autonomous ‘killer robot’ mode in Libya in 2020.

The gang wars originated with conflicts between farmers and cattle herders over land and water, but now have a momentum of their own. Criminals typically hide out in remote forested areas where poorly-equipped police and military forces have trouble finding them.

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Complaints have been issued against the RCMP and other police services claiming deployment of Tasers to subdue or gain compliance. The Commissioner for Public Complaints Against the RCMP has identified that Tasers are being used to subdue resistant subjects who do not pose a threat, and has referred to this expanded and less restrictive use as “usage creep.”9

A May 2008 review published by the Canadian Medical Association Journal contradicts previous assertions that “stun guns” manufactured by Taser International and others are unlikely to impact with deadly force. The authors reference three independent investigations that have found that stun guns may, in some circumstances, stimulate the heart and potentially result in adverse consequences.16 They recommend that additional research with human subjects is required.

According to a recent backgrounder by the CBC, Tasers are being used by 73 law enforcement agencies across Canada. Most mid-size police forces use these stun guns between 50 to 60 times a year on average, reports the CBC, based on figures compiled by the Canadian Police Research Centre.1The RCMP has 2,840 Tasers and has trained 9,132 officers to use them. They have been deployed more than 3,000 times since December 2001, in either drive stun mode (when electrodes on the Taser transmit electrical energy on contact with a subject’s body) or in full deployment (when darts are fired at a subject).2 Following a pilot study by the Toronto Police Service, Ontario’s Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services approved the Taser for use by Ontario police services in January 2005. In 2007, Tasers were used 264 times in Toronto, in either drive stun mode or full deployment,3 up from 97 times in 2006.4 The Taser was used an additional 140 times in 2007 as a “demonstrated force presence,” a deterrent measure where a spark is generated or the laser sighting system activated without any contact to the subject.

Conducted energy weapons (CEWs), commonly referred to as Tasers, were introduced to Canadian law enforcement agencies starting in 2001. Tasers are hand-held weapons that send a jolt of electricity intended to stun and temporarily incapacitate an individual’s motor nervous system. The charge is delivered through a pair of wires, weighted with barbed hooks, that can be fired from up to 10.6 metres away and will penetrate clothing up to five centimetres thick.1

There are a variety of ways in which the police and the mental health system can work together to manage first-response situations, in which the police are called to deal with an incident involving a person who appears to be mentally ill:

On December 6, officials in San Francisco reversed a previous decision and voted to temporarily ban the police department from deploying robots able to use lethal force. Many U.S. departments already use tracked, remote controlled devices for bomb disposal. One of the earliest was “Leroy,” a British Wheelbarrow bomb disposal robot which served with Cleveland’s police department from 1974. Such machines keep the bomb display tech at a safe distance from a suspect device and are credited with saving many lives.

Each police service in Ontario is currently governed by different protocols and policies concerning the number of times a Taser may be deployed. However, the Canadian Police Research Centre noted in their 2005 study that “…police officers need to be aware of the adverse effects of multiple, consecutive cycles of CEDs [Tasers] on a subject…”12